Biological control of insects

ABSTRACT

Provided herein are modified insects having decreased expression of a testis-specific coding region compared to a control insect. In one embodiment, the modified insect includes the characteristic of reduced fertility, reduced fecundity, or a combination thereof, when compared to the control insect. Optionally and preferably, the competiveness of the modified insect is not significantly reduced compared to the control insect. Also included herein are methods for making a modified insect, and methods for using the modified insects, including making populations of modified insects and use of the modified insects in sterile insect technique for biological control.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/880,498, filed Sep. 20, 2013, which is incorporated by reference herein.

BACKGROUND

The sterile insect technique (SIT) is a species-specific biological control method that can reduce or eliminate populations of pest insects without the need of chemical pesticides. The technique requires the release of large numbers of sterilized males, which then compete with wild males for female mates to reduce the population (Knipling, 1960; Vreysen et al., 2000; Klassen et al., 1994; Hendrichs et al., 1995; Bloem and Bloem, 1999). Radiation or chemosterilants are typically used to sterilize males for SIT, but these treatments can decrease their ability to compete for mates, which often necessitates the production and release of many more sterile males to increase efficacy (Holbrook and Fujimoto, 1970; Mayer et al., 1998; Helsinki and Knols, 2008). SIT is considered more effective if females are not released (Knipling, 1959; Robinson, 2002), as sterile female insects can still damage crops or transmit disease. Genetic sexing techniques have been developed for some insects, such as the medfly, to preferentially eliminate females before they mature. These typically involve chromosomal translocations that link the male-determining chromosome to a dominant selectable marker, while the females are homozygous for a recessive deleterious gene. Unfortunately, these translocations tend to break down when insects are mass-reared due to male chromosomal recombinations (Franz et al., 1994).

Conventional SIT has been used to control mosquitoes previously (Lofgren et al. 1974), but has not been used extensively due to the limited competitiveness of the sterile males. New transgenic methods, using genetically altered mosquitoes that carry and spread deleterious genes are being developed (Alphey et al, 2010), but the release of genetically-modified insects in many communities/countries may be prohibited or delayed until public opinion and regulatory issues are fully considered.

SUMMARY OF THE APPLICATION

Provided herein are modified insects. In one embodiment, a modified insect includes decreased expression of a testis-specific coding region compared to a control insect. In one embodiment, the modified insect is male. In one embodiment, the modified insect includes, when compared to the control insect, reduced fertility, reduced fecundity, or a combination thereof. Optionally and preferably, the competiveness of the modified insect is not significantly reduced compared to the control insect.

In one embodiment, the modified insect is a member of the family Culicidae (e.g., Aedes spp., Anopheles spp., or Culex spp.), the family Tephritidae (e.g., Ceratitis capitata, Anasirepha spp., or Bactrocera spp.), the family Tortricidae (e.g., Cydia pomonella), the Order Diptera (e.g., Cochliomyia hominivorax or Glossina spp.), or the Order Lepidoptera (e.g., Orgyia anartoides).

In one embodiment, the modified insect is a mosquito, such as Aedes aegypti, Aedes albopictus, Aedes vexans, Anopheles gambiae, Anopheles farauti, Anopheles quadrimaculatus, Anopheles stephensi, Culex pipiens, Culex quinquefasciatus, or Culex tarsalis. In one embodiment, the testis-specific coding region is selected from Table 2 or a homologue thereof. The expression of more than one testis-specific coding region may be decreased.

In one embodiment, the modified insect further includes decreased expression of a coding region encoding a sex differentiation polypeptide, such as a doublesex female splice variant, compared to a control insect.

Also provided herein are methods for making a modified insect. In one embodiment, the method includes administering to an insect, such as a juvenile insect, a composition that includes a double stranded RNA (dsRNA) that inhibits expression of a testis-specific coding region. The juvenile insect is allowed to mature into an adult, wherein the adult insect has reduced fertility, reduced fecundity, or a combination thereof, compared to a control insect. In one embodiment, the testis-specific coding region is selected from Table 2 or a homologue thereof. The expression of more than one testis-specific coding region may be decreased.

In one embodiment, the method is used to make a modified insect that is a member of the family Culicidae (e.g., Aedes spp., Anopheles spp., or Culex spp.), the family Tephritidae (e.g., Ceratitis capitata, Anastrepha spp., or Bactrocera spp.), the family Tortricidae (e.g., Cydia pomonella), the Order Diptera (e.g., Cochliomyia hominivorax or Glossina spp.), or the Order Lepidoptera (e.g., Orgyia anartoides). In one embodiment, the modified insect is a mosquito, such as Aedes aegypti, Aedes albopictus, Aedes vexans, Anopheles gambiae, Anopheles farauti, Anopheles quadrimaculatus, Anopheles stephensi, Culex pipiens, Culex quinquefasciatus, or Culex tarsalis.

In one embodiment, the administering includes feeding the composition to the insect. The dsRNA may be present in bacteria that are fed to the insect, and the bacteria may be living or inactivated. In one embodiment, the insect is a larva or a pupa. In one embodiment, the testis-specific coding region is selected from Table 2 or a homologue thereof. In one embodiment, the composition further includes at least one additional dsRNA that inhibits expression of a testis-specific coding region. In one embodiment, the method further includes administering to the insect a second dsRNA that inhibits expression of a coding region encoding a doublesex female splice variant. Also provided is a modified insect produced by the method, and a population of an insect produced by the method.

Further provided herein are methods for biological control of an insect. In one embodiment, the method includes releasing into an environment a population of a modified insect described herein, wherein the number of viable progeny in the next generation is reduced. In one embodiment, the reduction is determined by comparison to release of a wild-type insect into the environment.

Also provided herein are methods for producing a population of an insect that is male-biased. In one embodiment, the method includes administering to a population of an insect at a juvenile stage a composition that includes a double stranded RNA (dsRNA) that inhibits expression of a coding region encoding a doublesex female splice variant, and wherein the population of the insect has a reduced number of males compared to a population of the insect not administered the composition.

Also provided are the double stranded RNAs disclosed herein, including the single stranded RNA polynucleotides and single stranded DNA and double stranded polynucleotides corresponding to the double stranded RNAs.

The tern “and/or” means one or all of the listed elements or a combination of any two or more of the listed elements.

The words “preferred” and “preferably” refer to embodiments of the invention that may afford certain benefits, under certain circumstances. However, other embodiments may also be preferred, under the same or other circumstances. Furthermore, the recitation of one or more preferred embodiments does not imply that other embodiments are not useful, and is not intended to exclude other embodiments from the scope of the invention.

The terms “comprises” and variations thereof do not have a limiting meaning where these terms appear in the description and claims.

Unless otherwise specified, “a,” “an,” “the,” and “at least one” are used interchangeably and mean one or more than one.

Conditions that are “suitable” for an event to occur, or “suitable” conditions are conditions that do not prevent such events from occurring. Thus, these conditions permit, enhance, facilitate, and/or are conducive to the event.

Also herein, the recitations of numerical ranges by endpoints include all numbers subsumed within that range (e.g., 1 to 5 includes 1, 1.5, 2, 2.75, 3, 3.80, 4, 5, etc.).

For any method disclosed herein that includes discrete steps, the steps may be conducted in any feasible order. And, as appropriate, any combination of two or more steps may be conducted simultaneously.

The above summary of the present invention is not intended to describe each disclosed embodiment or every implementation of the present invention. The description that follows more particularly exemplifies illustrative embodiments. In several places throughout the application, guidance is provided through lists of examples, which examples can be used in various combinations. In each instance, the recited list serves only as a representative group and should not be interpreted as an exclusive list.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1. Testis-specific coding regions of Aedes aegypti encoding polypeptides.

FIG. 2. Testis-specific coding regions of Drosophila melanogaster encoding polypeptides.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRITIVE EMBODIMENTS

Provided herein are methods of producing insects, such as mosquitoes, that are sterile and/or have reduced fecundity. Such insects may be used in sterile insect technique (SIT) programs to eradicate pests and thereby reduce disease transmission and/or economic losses that can be caused by pests. SIT is a biological method of controlling pest insects by releasing large number of sterile males into a locality, where they compete with wild males for mates, and can effectively reduce or eliminate the pest population. Existing methods of producing sterile males for mosquito or other pest insects have traditionally relied upon the use of radiation or broad-spectrum chemosterilants to sterilize males, but these methods typically render the males weak and not highly competitive when they are released. Some new methods that rely on producing genetically-modified mosquitoes have been developed, but these approaches require the release of insects that can spread the gene into the population, which may have unforeseen impacts on the population beyond the region of concern.

Accordingly, provided herein are methods for making modified insects. As used herein, the term “modified” refers to an insect that has been altered “by the hand of man” through the introduction of an exogenous polynucleotide. As used herein, an “exogenous polynucleotide” refers to a polynucleotide that has been introduced into an insect and includes, but is not limited to, a polynucleotide that is not normally or naturally found in an insect. In one embodiment, the exogenous polynucleotide is a double stranded RNA (dsRNA). In one embodiment, a modified insect described herein has decreased expression of a testis-specific coding region compared to a control insect, decreased expression of a female-specific coding region compared to a control insect, or a combination thereof. A modified insect having decreased expression of a testis-specific coding region and/or decreased expression of a female-specific coding region may include an exogenous polynucleotide. A modified insect may be at any developmental stage, such as larva, pupa, or adult. In one embodiment, a modified insect is a larva or pupa that will develop into an adult that has reduced fertility, reduced fecundity, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, a modified insect is an adult and has reduced fertility, reduced fecundity, or a combination thereof. As used herein, a “control” insect is the same species of insect but is unmodified relative to the modified insect.

Insects that may be modified using the methods described herein include, but are not limited to, pests, such as insects that act as vectors for viral, bacterial, and/or parasite-based diseases; and/or inflict damage on crops, fruits, vegetables, animals, and/or humans. In one embodiment, an insect is a member of the family Culicidae. Examples of such insects include mosquitoes, such as Aedes spp. (e.g., A. aegypti, A. albopictus, and A. vexans), Anopheles spp. (e.g., A. gambiae, A. farauti, A. quadrimaculatus, A. stephensi, A. arabiensis), and Culex spp. (e.g., C. pipiens, C. quinquefasciatus, and C. tarsalis). In one embodiment, an insect is a member of the family Tephritidae. Examples of such insects include fruit flies such as Ceratitis capitata (commonly referred to as the Medfly), Anastrepha spp. (e.g. A. ludens, A. suspense, A. oblique) and Bactrocera spp. (e.g., B. tryoni, B. dorsalis, and B. oleae, B. cucurbitae). In one embodiment, an insect is a medical or animal pest that is a member of the Order Diptera, such as a screw worm fly (Cochliomyia hominivorax), or tsetse fly (Glossina spp, such as G. palpalis, G. fuscipes, G. morsitans, G. tachinoides, G. longipalpis, G. fusca, G. tabaniformis, G. brevipalpis, G. vanhoofi, G. austeni). In one embodiment, an insect is a member of the Order Lepidoptera (e.g. member of the Lymantriidae family, e.g. Orgyia anartoides) or of the family Tortricidae, e.g. Cydia pomonella).

In one embodiment, a method for making a modified insect includes administering to an insect a composition that includes a polynucleotide. As used herein, the term “polynucleotide” refers to a polymeric form of nucleotides of any length, either ribonucleotides or deoxynucleotides, and includes both double- and single-stranded DNA and RNA. A polynucleotide may include nucleotide sequences having different functions, including for instance coding sequences, and non-coding sequences such as regulatory sequences. Coding sequence, non-coding sequence, and regulatory sequence are defined below. A polynucleotide can be obtained directly from a natural source, or can be prepared with the aid of recombinant, enzymatic, or chemical techniques. A polynucleotide can be linear or circular in topology. A polynucleotide can be, for example, a portion of a vector, such as an expression or cloning vector, or a fragment.

In one embodiment, the polynucleotide may be a double stranded RNA (dsRNA) that inhibits expression of a testis-specific coding region. In another embodiment, the polynucleotide may be a DNA sequence that encodes a dsRNA. It should be understood that the sequences disclosed herein as DNA sequences can be converted from a DNA sequence to an RNA sequence by replacing each thymidine nucleotide with a uridine nucleotide. The insect may be juvenile or adult. A juvenile insect includes all stages except adult, e.g., larva and pupa. In one embodiment, the insect administered a composition described herein is a larva.

As used herein, a “coding region” is a nucleotide sequence that encodes an unprocessed preRNA (i.e., an RNA molecule that includes both exons and introns), and is processed to result in an mRNA that is translated into a polypeptide. The boundaries of a coding region are generally determined by a transcription initiation site at its 5′ end and a transcription terminator at its 3′ end. As used herein, a “testis-specific coding region” is a coding region that is expressed in the testis, but is either absent or expressed at undetectable levels (using qRT-PCR techniques) in other male tissues or in females. As used herein, a “female-specific coding region” is a coding region encoding a sex differentiation polypeptide that is expressed in both males and females, but a different splice variant is expressed in males and females. A “female-specific coding region” is the variant that is expressed in females only.

As described in Example 1, testis-specific coding regions have been identified that, when expression is decreased, result in decreased fertility and/or decreased fecundity, and do not significantly reduce competitiveness. In one embodiment, the testis-specific coding regions encoding polypeptides that may be decreased in a modified insect include, but are not limited to, the coding regions available at the Genbank accession numbers AAEL001684, AAEL002275, AAEL004231, AAEL004471, AAEL004939, AAEL005010, AAEL005975, AAEL006726, AAEL006975, AAEL007188, AAEL007434, AAEL010639, and AAEL011310. Each of these coding regions are transcribed and processed to result in an mRNA sequence, which is shown in FIG. 1 and Table 1.

TABLE 1 SEQ ID NO: of mRNA Genbank No. (see FIG. 1) AAEL001684 1 AAEL002275 2 AAEL004231 3 AAEL004471 4 AAEL004939 5 AAEL005010 6 AAEL005975 7 AAEL006726 8 AAEL006975 9 AAEL007188 10 AAEL007434 11 AAEL010639 12 AAEL011310 13

In one embodiment, the coding regions shown in Table 1 may be used in methods where the insect administered a dsRNA is a member of the family Culicidae. In one embodiment, the insect is Aedes aegypti. In other embodiments, a dsRNA directed to a coding region that is a homologue of a coding region shown in Table 1 may be used with other insects. For instance, Example 1 shows that dsRNA directed to a coding region of Drosophila melanogaster that is a homologue of a coding region shown in Table 1 reduces fertility and/or fecundity, and does not have a significant effect on competitiveness in D. melanogaster (see Table 7). This evidence that coding regions silenced A. aegypti genes, a member of the family Culicidae, also worked in D. melanogaster, a member of the family Tephritidae, shows the applicability of the methods described herein for use with other insects. Thus, coding regions present in other insects that are homologues of the coding regions disclosed herein (e.g., in Table 1 and the D. melanogaster coding regions shown in Table 7) can be used for making dsRNAs to silence testis-specific coding regions with the expectation that the dsRNAs will reduce fertility and/or fecundity in other insects.

Coding regions that are homologues are coding regions that share ancestry, e.g., they are both derived from a coding region present in a common ancestor. The skilled person can easily determine if a coding region in a non-A. aegypti insect is a homolog of a coding region disclosed herein through the use of routine methods. In one embodiment, the skilled person can use the nucleotide sequence of a coding region disclosed herein and design degenerate PCR primers for use in a low stringency PCR. Low stringency PCR is a routine method for identifying homologs of known coding region. In another embodiment, the skilled person can use readily available databases to identify in another insect a homolog of a coding region disclosed herein. Examples of suitable databases include, but are not limited to, VectorBase (available through the world wide web at vectorbase.org) and GenBank (available through the world wide web at ncbi.nlm.nih gov/genbank).

In another embodiment, the skilled person can identify a homolog of a coding region disclosed herein by the level of sequence identity between the coding region disclosed herein and another coding region. In one embodiment, when two nucleotide sequences are being compared, percent identities greater than 50% are taken as evidence of possible homology. The E value (Expect value) indicates the number of hits (sequences) in the database searched that are expected to align to the query simply by chance, so a E value less than 0.01 (i.e., less than 1% chance of the sequence occurring randomly), coupled with a percent identity of greater than 50% is considered a suitable score to identify a probable homolog. Methods for determining nucleotide sequence identity between two sequences are readily available and routine in the art. In one embodiment, coding regions in an insect that are homologues of the coding regions in Table 1 may be identified using the BLAST-X algorithm against the non-redundant database at NCBI with default parameters. A candidate coding region is considered to be a homologue of a coding region disclosed in Table 1 if the candidate coding region has at least greater than 50%, at least 55%, at least 60%, at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 86%, at least 87%, at least 88%, at least 89%, at least 90%, at least 91%, at least 92%, at least 93%, at least 94%, at least 95%, at least 96%, at least 97%, at least 98%, or at least 99% nucleotide sequence identity to the respective coding regions in Table 1.

Decreased expression of one or more of the coding regions disclosed in Table 1 may result in decreased fertility, decreased fecundity, or a combination thereof in an insect. Fertility refers to the ability of a population of males to yield viable eggs after presentation to a virgin mate (see Table 4). A population of males receiving one or more dsRNA that targets one or more mRNA is considered to have sufficiently decreased fertility if at least 50% of the males in the population are sterile, e.g., unable to produce viable eggs after presentation to a virgin female. Decreased fecundity refers to a reduction in the number of progeny produced by an incompletely sterile male. A fertile male is considered to have sufficiently decreased fecundity if the number of progeny produced by an incompletely sterile male is reduced by at least 50% compared to a control male.

While decreased expression of a testis-specific coding region often results in reduced fertility and/or reduced fecundity, it was expected that certain mutations in testis-specific coding regions would also reduce the competitiveness of the male. Competitiveness refers to the ability of a male insect to seek mates and compete with wild-type male insects for a female insect. Releasing a population of modified male insects in an environment for population control is ineffective if the males are unable to compete with the wild males for females. As described in Example 1, several testis-specific coding regions were identified in which silencing did not have a significant effect on competitiveness of the insect. Competitiveness can be measured by deteiinining whether males administered one or more dsRNA that targets a coding region disclosed in Table 1, or a homologue thereof, (and having decreased fertility and/or decreased fecundity) causes a reduction in population when competing with control males (see Table 6). Decreasing expression of a coding region disclosed in Table 1, or a homologue thereof, does not significantly alter competitiveness of a male insect if a population size is reduced by at least 20%. Methods for determining whether competitiveness is altered are described herein. In one embodiment, competitiveness can be determined by exposing 5 dsRNA-treated males and 5 untreated males to 10 virgin females, determining the number of progeny, and comparing to the number of progeny from mixing 5 untreated males to 10 virgin females.

In one embodiment, the method includes administering to the insect a dsRNA that inhibits expression of a sex differentiation polypeptide. Examples of suitable sex differentiation polypeptides include those that, when silenced in a developing insect, inhibit the development of females and increase the likelihood the developing insect will be male by the adult stage. When used with a population of developing insects, a method that includes administration of such a dsRNA will result in a male-biased population. For instance, a population of developing insects administered such a dsRNA will result in a population of adults that are, are at least, or are no greater than, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 81%, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% male. In one embodiment, an insect is administered a dsRNA that decreases expression of one or more testis-specific coding regions and a dsRNA that inhibits expression of a sex differentiation polypeptide.

Examples of suitable sex differentiation polypeptides that may be targeted in some insects include, but are not limited to, doublesex, sex lethal, and transformer. The function of these proteins have been well described in the model insect species Drosophila melanogaster, and related genes encoding some or all these proteins have been identified in a variety of insects (Gempe and Beye, 2010). Typically, a sex differentiation polypeptide is expressed in both males and females, but a different splice variant is expressed in males and females. The doublesex gene has been found in all insects examined to date, and usually functions in a manner similar to that observed in D. melanogaster (Salvemini, 2011). The transformer gene has been found is many insects examined, and evidence suggests that it is differentially spliced in females and males. A dsRNA for use in silencing a sex differentiation coding region is designed to target an mRNA that is necessary for the development of females. Thus, the splice variant that is expressed in insects that will become female is targeted, while the splice variant that is expressed in insects that will become male is not targeted. The identity of these splice variants is known for many insects. For those insects where the identity of the splice variants is not known, it can be easily determined by the skilled person by comparison with the known splice variants. Any dsRNA that decreases expression of the protein encoded by the doublesex gene may be used. Examples of two dsRNAs are shown in Table 2, and one or both may be used.

A dsRNA used in a method described herein includes a sense strand and an anti-sense strand. The sense strand is at least 19 nucleotides in length; however, longer lengths are generally more desirable. Thus, the sense strand may be, but not limited to, at least 50, at least 100, at least 200, at least 300, or at least 400 nucleotides, for instance. In all vertebrates, dsRNAs greater than 30 nucleotides in length will induce an interferon-mediated cell immune response, leading to cell death. Invertebrates, including insects, lack this interferon-based response, and hence, longer dsRNAs can be delivered. The sense strand is substantially identical, or identical, to a mRNA that is targeted by the dsRNA, i.e., a target mRNA. As used herein, the term “identical” means the nucleotide sequence of the sense strand has the same nucleotide sequence as a portion of the target mRNA. As used herein, the term “substantially identical” means the sequence of the sense strand differs from the sequence of a target mRNA at some number of nucleotides, but the ability of the complementary antisense strand to bind to and silence expression of the target mRNA is maintained. For instance, the sequence of the sense strand differs from the sequence of a target mRNA at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more nucleotides, while the remaining nucleotides are identical to the sequence of a polynucleotide, such as a mRNA.

The other strand of a dsRNA polynucleotide, referred to herein as the anti-sense strand, is substantially complementary, or complementary to the sense strand. The term “complementary” refers to the ability of two single stranded polynucleotides to base pair with each other, where an adenine on one polynucleotide will base pair to a thymine or uridine on a second polynucleotide and a cytosine on one polynucleotide will base pair to a guanine on a second polynucleotide. An antisense strand that is “complementary” to another polynucleotide, such as a target mRNA, means the nucleotides of the antisense strand are complementary to a nucleotide sequence of a polynucleotide, such as a target mRNA. As used herein, the term “substantially complementary” means the antisense strand includes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more nucleotides that are not complementary to a nucleotide sequence of a polynucleotide, such as a target mRNA.

Also provided herein are the single stranded RNA polynucleotides and single stranded DNA polynucleotides corresponding to the sense strands and antisense strands disclosed herein. Also provided herein are the double stranded polynucleotides disclosed herein, including the complements of the single stranded polynucleotides.

A dsRNA described herein may include overhangs on one or both strands. An overhang is one or more nucleotides present in one strand of a double stranded RNA that are unpaired, i.e., they do not have a corresponding complementary nucleotide in the other strand of the double stranded polynucleotide. An overhang may be at the 3′ end of a sense strand, an antisense strand, or both sense and antisense strands. An overhang is typically 1, 2, or 3 nucleotides in length. In one embodiment, the overhang is at the 3′ terminus and has the sequence uracil-uracil (or thymine-thymine if it is a DNA). Without intending to be limiting, such an overhang may be used to increase the stability of a dsRNA. In one embodiment, if an overhang is present it is not considered when determining whether a sense strand is identical or substantially identical to a target mRNA, and it is not considered when determining whether an antisense strand is complementary or substantially complementary to a target mRNA.

The sense and antisense strands of a double stranded RNA described herein may also be covalently attached, for instance, by a spacer made up of nucleotides. Such a polynucleotide is often referred to in the art as a hairpin RNA or a short hairpin RNA (shRNA). Upon base pairing of the sense and antisense strands, the spacer region typically forms a loop. The number of nucleotides making up the loop can vary, and loops between 3 and 23 nucleotides have been reported (Sui, 2002; Jacque, 2002). In one embodiment, an shRNA includes a sense strand followed by a nucleotide loop and the analogous antisense strand. In one embodiment, the antisense strand can precede the nucleotide loop structure and the sense strand can follow.

A dsRNA described herein may be modified. Such modifications can be useful to increase stability of the polynucleotide in certain environments. Modifications can include a nucleic acid sugar, base, or backbone, or any combination thereof. The modifications can be synthetic, naturally occurring, or non-naturally occurring. A dsRNA can include modifications at one or more of the nucleic acids present in the polynucleotide. Examples of backbone modifications include, but are not limited to, phosphonoacetates, thiophosphonoacetates, phosphorothioates, phosphorodithioates, phosphoramidates, methyl phosphonates, chiral-methyl phosphonates, 2-O-methyl ribonucleotides, and peptide-nucleic acids. Examples of nucleic acid base modifications include, but are not limited to, inosine, purine, pyridin-4-one, pyridin-2-one, phenyl, pseudouracil, 2,4,6-trimethoxy benzene, 3-methyl uracil, dihydrouridine, naphthyl, aminophenyl, 5-alkylcytidines (e.g., 5-methylcytidine), 5-alkyluridines (e.g., ribothymidine), 5-halouridine (e.g., 5-bromouridine) or 6-azapyrimidines or 6-alkylpyrimidines (e.g. 6-methyluridine), or propyne modifications. Examples of nucleic acid sugar modifications include, but are not limited to, 2′-sugar modification, e.g., 2′-O-methyl nucleotides, 2′-deoxy-2′-fluoro nucleotides, 2′-deoxy-2′-fluoroarabino, 2′-O-methoxyethyl nucleotides, 2′-O-trifluoromethyl nucleotides, 2′-O-ethyl-trifluoromethoxy nucleotides, 2′-O-difluoromethoxy-ethoxy nucleotides, or 2′-deoxy nucleotides. Polynucletotides can be obtained commercially synthesized to include such modifications (for instance, Dharmacon Inc., Lafayette, Colo.).

A dsRNA useful herein is biologically active. A biologically active dsRNA causes the post-transcriptional inhibition of expression, also referred to as silencing, of a target coding region. Without intending to be limited by theory, after administration of dsRNA to an insect, the antisense strand of the dsRNA will hybridize with a target mRNA and signal cellular endonucleases to cleave the target mRNA. The result is the inhibition of expression of the polypeptide encoded by the mRNA. Whether the expression of a target coding region is inhibited can be determined by, for instance, measuring a decrease in the amount of the target mRNA in the cell, measuring a decrease in the amount of polypeptide encoded by the mRNA, or by measuring a change in a phenotype associated with expression of the polypeptide encoded by the mRNA.

Examples of polynucleotides that may be used to silence the expression of mRNAs encoded by the coding regions disclosed in Table 1 and in Table 7 are shown in Table 2. Also included in Table 2 are examples of polynucleotides that may be used to silence the expression of mRNAs encoded by the female splice variant of the doublesex coding region.

TABLE 2 target mRNA encoded by coding region at Genbank No. Exemplary dsRNA for use in silencing expression (only one strand shown). AAEL001684 CTGTGCCGGTTATTCAGCTCGTACGGCAACGTCAAGTCAACGAAAATCATCGTAGATCGGGCGGGCGTCAGC AAAGGCTACGGATTCGTAACGTTCGAAACCGAACACGAGGCACAAAGACTGCAGAGCGATGGAGACTGTATC GTGCTGAGGGACCGTAAGCTAAACATAGCACCAGCGATTAAGAAGCAAGTAAGTTGGCACCATACAATCTGC GCGACGAACGGTGCCGTGTACTACGCAGCCACACCCCCGACGCCGACGATCAACAACATCCC (SEQ ID NO: 14) AAEL002275 AGATCGAGCACTGTTTCCGAGCTTATGATATCGGCGGAGAAGAGTTACTTCGGAGAGAACACATGATGATAT TGTTGCGGAGTTGTTTCATCAAGCACCAAGAAGAGGAAGTCGAAGAATCGGTTAAGGACATGGTCGAAATTC TTATCCGTCGAATGGACGTTGATCGAGATGGAGCCATTTCCTTGGATGACTTCCGACAATCCGTTCACAAGT CACCAGAACTTCTAGAGTGCTTCGGCCAGGCACTTCCAGATCGGGCCCATGTATACG (SEQ ID NO: 15) AAEL004231 AGCCAAAGGAAGTACGGTCATCGATGGGGTGGACACATCCAGTATGTCCCGCGAACAGCTAGAACAGTTTGC GCTCCGGCTTCGCAACGAGATGGAACGGGAACGCGAGGAGCGAAACTTCTTCCAGCTGGAGCGGGACAAACT GCGCACGTTCTGGGAAATCACGCGCAAACAGCTCGAGGAAGCGAAAGCCGTGATACGCAACAAAGAACGTGA CGTAGAGGTTGCCCAAGAACTTGCCGACCAGGACACGAAAAATGTGATGCAGGAGATGAAGCATCTGCAGTA CGAGCATCAGTCGCACATCGGAGAGCTGAAAG (SEQ ID NO: 16) AAEL004471 CGCGCCAAGAAGAAGATCAACGACATCTTCGGCGAGATCGAGGACTATGTGGTGGAGACAACCGGATTCATC GATGCCCTCCCGACGATGGTGGAAATCGTGGACAAAGCCGAGTCGGAGCTATTCCGGAGCTATGTGCTGAAA GTGTCCGGCATCCGGGAGGTGCTCGCCCGTGACCACATGAAGGTGGCCTTCTTTGGGCGCACCTCCAACGGG AAAAGTTCAGTGATCAACGCTATGCTGCGGGACAAAAT (SEQ ID NO: 17) AAEL004939 TATCCTGGGCAGCTGAACTCGGATCTTCGAAAACTTCTGACCAACATGGTACCCTATAGGAAACTTCACTTT TTCGTACCGGGTATTGCGCCGCTAACATCGAAGGAAAGTCAATGCTACAGAAGTCTCTCCGTTTCGGAGTTA GTCTATCAAATTTTTGATGAACAAAACCTCATGGCAGCTTGCTCGCCATCCAGAGGAAAATATCTAACGGCT GCTGCCCTCTTCCGGGGACGAGTATCTACCAGAAATGTGGAAGAACAAATCGCCAACGTAAGGCAGAAAAAT CACGGTACCTTCTCGCATTG (SEQ ID NO: 18) AAEL005010 GTTTTCGTCGGTCCGGTTAGCCAAATACATCAGCAAGAATCAGAACGTCCAAACGCTGGCCTGTAAGGTGAT CGACGTCCGCAAGGGGACTGAAGAATTCATCAAGAAGTTCTTTCCCCGGGAGCTCAGCGTGTTGATGAAGAT CCGCCATCCAAACATCATCAAAATCCACAGCATTCTGAAGCGGGAACGGATGGTGTTCATCTTTATGGATTA CGCCGA (SEQ ID NO: 19) AAEL005975 TGGACAAGGCGGAACAAAAGCGACACGAGGAACAGGAACGTGAAATGTTGATGCGAGCAGCCAAGTCTCGAT CAAAAACGGAAGATCCGGAGCAAGCTAAACTTAAGGCTAAGGCGAAGGAAATGCAACGAGCAGAGATGGAGG AACTTCGACAGCGAGACGCTAATTTGACGGCCCTGCAAGCCATTGGACCACGGAAAAAGCCTAAACTGGAGG AGGGAGCAACTACGACTGTTACGGTTAGTTGTCCAGCACTTGTTTCGGTCTTCACATGTTTTTCAACTCCGT TTTTCTGTTTTTTTTTAGCCTGGTGCATCCGGCATTGGAGTGGGAGCAAGCGGGAAGACCGCCACCCCGTTG AGGCCTCGAATCAAG (SEQ ID NO: 20) AAEL006726 GCATTCCTGTTCTCGTTCCCCAAACACTTGTGGCGATTTTGCGAACGCGGTCGTCTTGAAACGTTGTGTCAC AATCTGACTTCTATCCTTTCACCTGGTGCGTGGACTCGGAAGCGTAAAGCCTTAACTCTACTTTATTTGACC CAAGAGAGCCGCAAGGGACACAACAAATACGCATTGATTTTTATCGGATGTGAGATTCTCAACTTTTTCATA GTCCTCCTGAACATGTTCTTGATGAACTTCTTGTTCGGAGGTTTTTGGGCCAGTTACCAACCGGCCATTCAG GCACTGCTTTCACTGGACATGAACGCCTGGACTTCGTATAATTCTCTGGTCTTTCCGAAGCTGGCCAAATGT GACTTCA (SEQ ID NO: 21) AAEL006975 GCCATTTCGATGCCAAAACGGAAGGACAGCTCGTAAATCTAATCAAAGAGTCAAATCTGAAAGGAAAAGTTG GACAAGTCAAGGTGTTCAACAACATCGATCCGGACTTCGGTTCGGTGGCCGTTGTAGGACTCGGTTTGGAAG GGCTCGGGTACAATGAGCTTGAACAGCTGGACGAAGGCCTCGAGAACGTTCGTATCGCGTCTGGTGTAGGTG CTAAGTGTCTAGCGAAGCAAGGATGTTCCCGGATTTCAGTCGA (SEQ ID NO: 22) AAEL007188 GCAGCGCCAATATCTGAACATAGCCAATTCAACTGCCGCTTCCAAAGATGTCCAGATTATGCGATGTCTGGA GAAGAAGCTCAAGTACTTGCAACGGGAAAAGACGGAACTCAAAACCAAGCTTAAGGTTGCGTACGCTCCCTG CCACGTTCGACGATACGATCGACAGGTTCAACTGGTGGAAGCCCACGTTCGCGTGCAGGATGATCTGGTCTT GAAAATGAACGGCCTTCGAACGGAGATTCGTCACCTGGAATCGCAAATGAAGCGGCTCGATAAGGAGAGGAA GGAGCTTCAGAAGGTTTCGCAGTCGGATTACTTCTTCTACAATCGGGTTACGAAAGCTAAGAAACGACTAGC GACGTTGGAAGATCGATTGTATCACCTGAAGAAGCGGGAAGCT (SEQ ID NO: 23) AAEL007434 CTGTCCTCGCCCAATGAATGGAACCGCAAAGAGGTTAAAAAACAACTTTCGGAGCGAGGTTATCTGATCGGG CAATCCATCGGCGAGGGTTCCTACTCGAAGGTGTACTACTCGGAATACCGTAAATCAGGCCAACAGCAGCAT TTCCCGGAACGGAGAGCATGCAAAATCATCAATCGAAACAAAAGTTCAATGGAGTATTCGCAGTTCCTTCCG AGGGAGATCAAAACGATGATAGCGCTGTCCCATCCGAATATCGTTTCGGTTTATTCGGTGTTTGAATTTGGT CCTTATGTTTGCATTTTCATGGATTATTGCCGGTGCGGAGATTTACTGCAG (SEQ ID NO: 24) AAEL010639 GCGCACGTTATGATGGGAATTGGTTCAAGAACAAGCGCCACGGTGTAGGAAATTACGTTTTTAGCCGCGGAG ATGTTACCTTGAAGGGAACATGGATCGAAGGAATCGCTCGCGGTCCCGCAGAGATCGTOTTTGAAGAGTATC GGTTCCATGGATATTGGGATGTAGACAAACCCAGAGGTCCAGGTAGTTTCACTTTTGACGCCAAAGTTATGA TCAGTGGAAAGTACTTCGTCGATGAGAAAGAGGGATGTGATGCAAGGGAA (SEQ ID NO: 25) AAEL011310 GGATATGAGACCCGAACCGTTGTTCATCTTCGACCTGGGCGCTTCGGTGGGCGATGTCAAGTGGGCTCCATA CTCCAGTACGGTGTTTGCGGCGGTCACAACCGAGGGCAAAGTGTTTGTATTCGACCTGAGCGTGAACAAGTA CAAAGCGATTTGTGTGCAGGCGGTCGTCTCTAAGCGGAAGAACAAACTCTCTCGGATTGCCTTCAATCACAA GCTACCGTTCATCATCGTCGGGGATGACAAGGGCACAACAATTACGCTCAAACTGTCGCCCAACCTGCGCAT CAAGACGAAGGCACCGAAGAAAAC (SEQ ID NO: 26) CG4727 (bol) GCGGATGGTGAATGCGTGGTACTAAGAGATCGGAAGCTGAACATTGCACCGGCCATCAAAAAGCAGCCCAAT CCTCTGCAGTCAATTGTGGCCACAAACGGAGCCGTCTACTATACCACCACGCCGCCGGCACCGATCAGCAAT ATACCCATGGATCAGTTCGCAGCCGCTGTATATCCGCCAGCCGCTGGAGTGCCAGCCATCTACCCACCTTCA GCCATGCAATATCAGCCATTCTATCAGTACTACAGTGTGCCAATGAATGTACCCACCATTTGGCCTCAGAAC TACCAAGAAAACCATTCGCCATTGCTGCACTCGCCGACGTCAAACCCGCATTCGCCACACTCCCAGTCGCAT CCACAATCCCCATGCTGGAG (SEQ ID NO: 27) CG3565 CTGGAGAATGCCCGCTTCAACTACGTGTATATGAAGGACATTGCTCGCCTGGCAAAGGACTCGATCTTCTCG CATAACGAGCTGATTAGCATTGTAATGCTCTACCATAAGTTTGTGCTGGTCAATGGGCCGAGAGCAAAGTAC ATGACCATTCAGCAACTCTCTGCGCTGATGGAGCTCTTGTTTGAGATCGTGGATCGCGATCTCATTGCGACC ATTGTGTATAGAATAGCCCATACACCAGGTTCCAGGCCTCCTGACTTCTTTTCCGACAAGCATATACACTTG GAGTCCTTTGTGCGGCTTTTCACCGTATACTT (SEQ ID NO: 28) CG14271 (Gas8) GCCTCAAGACGCGCAACACTCGGCTGGAAAAGAAGGTGAAGGGTCTCACTTGGGAGGCGGAAACTCTGATCC TGCGCAACGACTCGCTGGTGGCAGAACGGGAGGGCCTGAAGGAGCGTTTCAACGACGTGATCGTCGAGCTGC AGCAGAAGACAGGACTAAAGAATGTCCTTCTGGAGCGCAAGATTGCCGCATTGATGCGCGAGGATGAGAAGC GCAGCATTGTCCTACACGAAACGATTGCCACCTGCGCTCCCAATTTCGCCGAAAAGTTAACCAGCTTGGATG AACGGGTGGGCAAC (SEQ ID NO: 29) CG4568 (fzo) CGCGGTGTCAGCGTTAAAAACCAAATTTGGTCCACACTTGCTAAGTGCGCAGAAGATTTTAAACCAGTTAAA ATCAACTCTGATATGCCCTTTCATAGAGAAAGTAAGTCGTCTTATCGATGAGAATAAGGAGAGAAGAGCTAA CTTGAATGCCGAAATAGAGGACTGGTTAATACTAATGCAAGAGGATAGAGAAGCGCTTCAATATTGTTTCGA AGAACTGACTGAAATGACACAAAGAGTAGGTCGGTGCGTTTTGAACGACCAGATAAAAACGTTAATACCCTC GTCTGTGCTATCATTCTCGCAACCATTTCACCCGGAATTCCCAGCACAAATAGGCCAGTAC (SEQ ID NO: 30) CG32396 (β-tub) GCTTGACCTCTCTAATAATGGAGGCCCTGGTGGAGCAGTATCCGGATAATTTACTCTGCAACTATGTGACCA TTCGGTCGCCGAATATGTCGCAGGTGGTTGTGGAACCCTATAATGCCCTACTTAGTACTCCCGCCTTGGTTA ACAATTCGCATTTAACCTTCTGCCTTGATAACGAGGCACTGTTCCAAATCTGCAATAGAAACCTGAAGCTCA AGATGTCCGGCTACGAGCACATTAACCACATAGTAGCCCTGACCATGTCGGGTATAACCACTTGCCTGCGGT TTCCTGGCCAACTGAATGCTGGATTGCGCAAGATCTATGTAAATATGGTGCCATTCCCGCGGCTGCACTTCC TCATACCGGGATTCGCACCATTGGTCACTTGCAAGCAGCAGCAGTTCAGCAAGGGTACCGTTTCGGAGCTGG TGCAGCAGATCTTCTACAGTAATAATCTGCTCTGTGCCATCGATCTTCGAAAGGGCAAACTGCTGACCGCTG CTGGAATTTTCCG (SEQ ID NO: 31) CG1S259 (nht) TGCGAGCATCGAACAAGCTATCATCTGCACAACGACGAACGTTGTGTGATGAAGAACGATATGAGGGTCACG ATGATGTTCCTCAACGATCTCGAGATTGCCGACTATGGATCATCGGATGACGAGACCGGCTTTTATCGCAAG CGCCGGGCAGAGAACATCGACGAGGAGAGAAAGGTGGCTCGTCTGGAATCGGTGAATGATACGGCCTTGCTA GCCATCTCCGGTCGAAAGCGCCCGGGAGAACAACTAGCCCCAGAATCTGCTCCAAGTGGTTCGAAAGTCGCC AAATTGACCGGTGCTCCGAT (SEQ ID NO: 32) CG18369 (S-Lap5) GCAACAAGCGCAAGCAGGATCGCACTCAGGTACCCAAACTGGATCTGTACGACTCACCGGATGTGGATGCCT GGACGAGGGGTCTCTTCAAGGCGGAATCTCAGAACTTGGCTCGAAGATTGAGCGATTCGCCGGCTAATCAGA TGACCCCCACCATATTCGCCCAATCGGCGGTGGATGCCCTGTGTCCGTGCGGCGTTTCCGTGGAGGTGCGAT CCATGGATTGGATAGAAATGAATCATCTCAATTCGTTTCTAATGATAGCCAAAGGCAGCTGCGAGCCACCGG TGGTCCTGGAGGTCAGCTACTGCGGCACAGCACCCGAGGATCGGCCCATTCTGCTGTTGGGCAAGGGTTTGA CCTACAACAGTGGCGGATTGTGCCTGCGGCCAAAGGATTGCCTGCATATGTACCGCGGCTGCATGGCGGGAG CAGCCGTTTGTGTGGCCGCCGTTCGAGCTGCGGCAGCCCTTTCCCTGCCTGTAAACATCACGGCCGTACTGC CGCTCTGCGAGAATATGCCATCGGG (SEQ ID NO: 33) CG17083 TCGGTGAATCGCCTGTTTGAGGATATAGTTAACCTGAAAAAGGATAACTCCAACACGCTGCAGGACCAACTG GATCAGATTTCCAGTCTGGAGAACAAGGTGCGTAACAAACAGGAATCCAACATGGAACTGCACAAGGCGCGG GAAAACAACGATGCACGTTTGGAGAATCTTCTACAGGGCGTGGAGACGGTCTGCGAGATGTGTTCCATAGAT GCCAGTCCGCTGACCAAACTCCTTGGTGACCACACCCACGTCAATCTGGTTAATGTCAATCGATTCTTGAAG CTGCTCGAGACAAGGGTCCAGGAGCTGACGGCTAGTGTTT (SEQ ID NO: 34) CG9313 GCCCACAACATGTCCGTCTATCGCATTGACTTCAATCGCTTCAACAGCAACATCTTCGTGTCCTGTGGCGCC GACTGGATGGTCAAGGTGTGGGAGGATATGCGTCCAGATCCGCTGTTCATATTCGATCTTGGTGCCGCCGTT GGCGATGTCAAGTGGGCACCTTACTCGAGCACCGTCTTCGCAGCGGTGACCACCGAGGGCAAGGTCCACGTT TTCGACCTAAATGTGAATAAGTACAAGGCCATCTGCATCCAGGCCGTGGTGCCCAAGCGAAAGAACAAGCTC ACCAGGTTATCCTTCAACGAGAAGCTCGCCTT (SEQ ID NO: 35) Aedes Dsx-F female- GGTCAAGCCGTGGTCAATGAATACTCACGATTGCACAATCTGAACATGTTTGACGGTGTGGAGTTGCGCAGT specific exons, ACGACGCGCCAGTCCGGATGATAGACTTTTTACACGATCAGCACGACCCACTGCGCTGTGGCAAAGGTCGAA DQ440532.1 and CCGAAACAAGAATAAAGCACGAAGATCAGATGATCGATTTGACGGAAGAAGCAATCGAATACAAAGAAGAAT DQ440533.1 CGGAACGAAGAAAACTCTAAAGCATCGCATATTTACAAAGCATAACGGAAAACCCGCAAGTTCAAACTAGTG ATTAGTGTAAGATGAAGCAAAGCAGAAATGTGGTATGTAGATTTTTCGACGTTAGTTTACAAAGATAAGAAA TGAGGTTGGACACACAATCGTGGGTATTCGTCTGAGTTCGTCACAACTGCACCGGAAACTGTGAAACAGAAT AGAGCCAACCTGTGCGCGGAGAATGTTG (SEQ ID NO: 36) GCAAATGCTGTTTAACGATAATAGCGACATGCAGCCATTCTGGGGCTACCACGTGTAGCTCTACTTGTGAGA CAGCGTTCCTAAAGAGTGTGAAAGTGCAAACAAGTGATGAAACCAATAGTGCAAAGCAAGTTTAGAGGGAAA ATTTAAAAAAATGCAAAACAGCAGTAGTACTTAACTTTTAAGATTGTGTTTCGAAAGCCGAAGTGTGTTCCA TCTGCCACCGGAAAAAAACGACGACAGCAGAATCATCAACAAGCAACATCCATCCGAAAAAATCCGGGAAAC CGGATCTTCAACCAACCATCCTACAATCTACAAACCAGAGATTATATCTCTTCAATCGTTTCCGACATCGGT CGGTTTCGGTGCCCAAAATGATCTGATAAACACTTATCTCTCTGTAGCTTGCATGCCATTGCGAGCGTATTT TGGTAGCTGGCCGTTGCCAAACGGCTCCGAC (SEQ ID NO: 37)

The skilled person will understand that a portion of each of the exemplary dsRNAs shown in Table 2 may be used to silence expression of a target mRNA, and that longer dsRNAs may also be used. Also understood by the skilled person is the ability to use other dsRNAs to silence expression of the target mRNAs disclosed in Table 2.

dsRNA polynucleotides useful in the methods described herein can be designed using methods that are routine and known in the art. For instance, candidate dsRNA polynucleotides that inhibit the expression of one of the mRNAs described herein may be identified using readily available algorithms. A candidate polynucleotide is the polynucleotide that is being tested to determine if it decreases expression of one of the coding regions described herein. The candidate polynucleotide can be identical to nucleotides located in the region encoding the polypeptide, or located in the 5′ or 3′ untranslated regions of the mRNA. Candidate polynucleotides may be screened using publicly available algorithms (e.g., BLAST) to compare the candidate polynucleotide sequences with coding sequences. Those that are likely to form a duplex with an mRNA expressed by a non-target coding region are typically eliminated from further consideration. The remaining candidate polynucleotides may then be tested to determine if they inhibit expression of a coding region.

In general, candidate polynucleotides are individually tested by introducing a candidate polynucleotide into a cell that expresses the appropriate polypeptide. In one embodiment, the candidate polynucleotides may be prepared in vitro and then administered to an insect, or to a cell that expresses the target mRNA. Methods for in vitro synthesis include, for instance, chemical synthesis with a conventional DNA/RNA synthesizer. Commercial suppliers of synthetic polynucleotides and reagents for such syntheses are well known. Methods for in vitro synthesis also include, for instance, in vitro transcription using a circular or linear vector in a cell free system. In one embodiment, the candidate polynucleotide may be administered as a dsRNA. In one embodiment, a candidate polynucleotide may also be administered to an insect, or to a cell that expresses the target mRNA, as a construct that encodes the candidate polynucleotide. Such constructs are known in the art and include, for example, a vector encoding and expressing a sense strand and an antisense strand of a candidate polynucleotide, and RNA expression vectors that include the sequence encoding the sense strand and antisense strand of a candidate polynucleotide flanked by operably linked regulatory sequences, such as an RNA polymerase III promoter and an RNA polymerase III terminator, that result in the production of an RNA polynucleotide.

A cell that can be used to evaluate a candidate polynucleotide may be a cell that expresses the appropriate target mRNA. A cell can be ex vivo or in vivo. As used herein, the term “ex vivo” refers to a cell that has been removed from the body of an insect. Ex vivo cells include, for instance, primary cells (e.g., cells that have recently been removed from an insect and are capable of limited growth in tissue culture medium), and cultured cells (e.g., cells that are capable of extended culture in tissue culture medium). As used herein, the term “in vivo” refers to a cell that is within the body of an insect.

Methods for introducing a candidate polynucleotide into a cell, including a vector encoding a candidate polynucleotide, are known in the art and routine. When the cells are ex vivo, such methods include, for instance, transfection with a delivery reagent, such as lipid or amine based reagents, including cationic liposomes or polymeric DNA-binding cations (such as poly-L-lysine and polyethyleneimine) Alternatively, electroporation or viral transfection can be used to introduce a candidate polynucleotide, or a vector encoding a candidate polynucleotide. When the cells are in vivo, such methods include, but are not limited to, feeding the candidate polynucleotide to an insect or soaking the insect in a composition that includes the candidate polynucleotide.

When evaluating whether a candidate polynucleotide functions to inhibit expression of a target mRNA described herein, the amount of target mRNA in a cell containing a candidate polynucleotide can be measured and compared to a control cell (e.g., the same type of cell that does not contain the candidate polynucleotide). Methods for measuring mRNA levels in a cell are known in the art and routine. Such methods include quantitative reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Primers and specific conditions for amplification of a target mRNA can be readily determined by the skilled person. Other methods include, for instance, Northern blotting, and array analysis.

Other methods for evaluating whether a candidate polynucleotide functions to inhibit expression of a polypeptide encoded by a target mRNA includes monitoring the polypeptide. For instance, assays can be used to measure a decrease in the amount of polypeptide encoded by the mRNA, or to measure a decrease in the activity of the polypeptide encoded by the mRNA. Methods for measuring a decrease in the amount of a polypeptide include assaying for the polypeptide present in cells containing a candidate polynucleotide and comparing to a control cell. Whether a cell expresses one of the polypeptides can be determined using methods that are routine and known in the art including, for instance, Western immunoblot, ELISA, immunoprecipitation, or immunohistochemistry.

In one embodiment, a candidate polynucleotide is able to decrease the expression of a target mRNA by at least 5%, at least 10%, at least 15%, at least 20%, at least 30%, at least 40%, at least 50%, at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 90% or 100% when compared to a control cell.

A dsRNA described herein can be encoded by a polynucleotide present in a vector. A vector is a replicating polynucleotide, such as a plasmid, phage, or cosmid, to which another polynucleotide may be attached so as to bring about the replication of the attached polynucleotide. Construction of vectors containing a polynucleotide described herein employs standard ligation techniques known in the art. See, e.g., Sambrook, 1989. A vector can provide for further cloning (amplification of the polynucleotide), i.e., a cloning vector, or for expression of the polynucleotide, i.e., an expression vector. The term vector includes, but is not limited to, plasmid vectors. A vector may result in integration into a cell's genomic DNA. Typically, a vector is capable of replication in a bacterial host, for instance E. coli. A polynucleotide described herein can be present in a vector as two separate complementary polynucleotides, each of which can be expressed to yield a sense and an antisense strand of the dsRNA, or as a single polynucleotide containing a sense strand, a loop region, and an anti-sense strand, which can be expressed to yield an RNA polynucleotide having a sense and an antisense strand of the dsRNA.

Selection of a vector depends upon a variety of desired characteristics in the resulting construct, such as a selection marker, vector replication rate, and the like. Suitable host cells for cloning or expressing the vectors herein are prokaryote or eukaryotic cells. Suitable prokaryotes include members of the domain Bacteria and members of the domain Archaea. In one embodiment, a suitable prokaryote is E. coli.

An expression vector optionally includes regulatory sequences operably linked to the polynucleotide of the present invention. Typically, the promoter results in the production of an RNA polynucleotide. Examples of such promoters include those that cause binding of an RNA polymerase, such as an RNA polymerase III complex, to initiate transcription of an operably linked polynucleotide of the present invention. In one embodiment, examples of such promoters include U6 and H1 promoters. A promoter may be constitutive or inducible. Another regulatory sequence is a transcription terminator. Suitable transcription terminators are known in the art and include, for instance, a stretch of 5 consecutive thymidine nucleotides.

The polynucleotide, such as a dsRNA, is administered to the insect. Methods for administering a dsRNA to an insect include, but are not limited to, administration by direct injection into an insect, administration by feeding, and administration by exposing the insect to conditions where dsRNA penetrates the cuticle (e.g., soaking the insect in a composition that includes one or more dsRNAs. The polynucleotide is present in a composition suitable for the chosen route of administration. Thus, a composition that is to be injected is formulated to be suitable for injection, for instance, isotonic with the recipient insect, and the like. A composition that is to be used for administration by soaking is suitable for maintaining the viability of the insect. An example of such a composition is an aqueous solution that is free of chlorine and pesticides. A dsRNA may be administered to an insect at the larva stage, the pupa stage, or the adult stage

The polynucleotide may be complexed with a compound suitable for the chosen route of administration. For example, a polynucleotide may be associated with nanoparticles (see, for instance, Zhu et al., US Published Patent Application 2013/0137747), and/or other compounds that promote the uptake of a polynucleotide by a cell (see, for instance, Whyard et al., US Published Patent Application 2013/0237586). In one embodiment, the polynucleotide is present in solid form that is fed to an insect. Different solid forms may be used depending upon the insect that is to be targeted, and the use of different solid forms is known to the skilled person and routine. In one embodiment, the solid form is a cell. The cell may be any cell that will be ingested by the insect and that can be engineered to express the dsRNA. The cell may be a prokaryotic cell or a eukaryotic cell. Examples of prokaryotic cells include members of the domain Bacteria and members of the domain Archea. One example of a Bacteria is the routinely used host cell Eschericia coli, and another example is Pseudomonas spp. Examples of eukaryotic cells include, but are not limited to, unicellular microbes such as yeasts, such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and plant cells. Other solid forms that may include the dsRNA and be fed to an insect are routinely used during laboratory culture of insects and are readily available. In one example, a cell is combined with a nutrient source and a matrix, such as agar or other gelatinous substance, which is then fed to an insect, such as a larva. An example of a composition that includes a cell having a dsRNA, a nutrient source, and an agar is disclosed in Example 1. In one embodiment, a dsRNA combined with a nutrient source and a matrix is not present in a cell. Also provided herein is a cell that includes a dsRNA disclosed herein.

A cell that is fed to an insect may be capable of replication or may be inactivated, i.e., incapable of replication. A cell may be inactivated in any way, provided the dsRNA in the inactivated cell remains biologically active, e.g., does not lose the ability to silence a target coding region. Methods for inactivation of a cell are known in the art and routine, and include, for instance, heat, high pressure, antibiotics (bacteriostatic or bacteriocidal), and the like.

The dosage administered to an insect is sufficient to result in decreased expression of the polypeptide encoded by the target mRNA. Such dosages can be easily determined by the skilled person. In one embodiment, when the dsRNA is injected, the concentration of dsRNA is, is at least, or is no greater than, 0.01 milligrams/milliliter (mg/ml), 0.05 mg/ml, 0.1 mg/ml, 0.5 mg/ml, or 1 mg/ml. In one embodiment, when more than one mRNA is injected the concentration of the combined dsRNAs is, is at least, or is no greater than, 0.01 milligrams/milliliter (mg/ml), 0.05 mg/ml, 0.1 mg/ml, 0.5 mg/ml, or 1 mg/ml. In one embodiment, the volume injected is, is at least, or is no greater than, 5 nanoliters (nl), 10 nl, 15 nl, 20 nl, or 25 nl. An insect may be injected once, or more than once. In one embodiment, an insect may be injected at different developmental stages.

In one embodiment, when the dsRNA is administered by soaking the insect, the concentration of dsRNA in the aqueous solution is, is at least, or is no greater than, 0.01 mg/ml, 0.05 mg,/ml, 0.1 mg/ml, 0.5 mg/ml, or 1 mg/ml. In one embodiment, when more than one mRNA is present, the concentration of the combined dsRNAs is, is at least, or is no greater than, 0.01 milligrams/milliliter (mg/ml), 0.05 mg/ml, 0.1 mg/ml, 0.5 mg/ml, or 1 mg/ml. The insect may be exposed to the dsRNA continuously or for shorter periods. In one embodiment, the insect is exposed to the solution with the dsRNA(s) for, for at least, or for no greater than, 30 minutes, 1 hour, or 2 hours each day. In one embodiment, the exposure is for, for at least, or for no greater than, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 days. In one embodiment, the insect is a larva or a pupa and exposure is for each day of that developmental stage.

In one embodiment, when the dsRNA is administered by feeding it to the insect, the insect is fed the composition 1 or more times each day. In one embodiment, the exposure is for, for at least, or for no greater than, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 days. In one embodiment, the insect is a larva and exposure is for each day of that developmental stage.

In one embodiment, more than one dsRNA may be administered to an insect. For instance, an insect may be injected more than once with separate compositions, each of which contain one type of dsRNA, or injected once with a composition that includes different types of dsRNAs. Likewise, an insect may be fed a composition that includes different microbes, each of which contains one type of dsRNA, or may be fed a single microbe that has been engineered to include more than one type of dsRNA. When more than one dsRNA is administered to an insect, the different types of dsRNAs may target the same mRNA or different mRNAs. Some combinations of dsRNAs that target different mRNAs are synergistic in the effect they have on reducing fertility, reducing fecundity, and/or increasing male bias. Examples of combinations that are synergistic are shown in Table 14. It was also found that dsRNAs that not reduce fertility and/or fecundity when used alone can result in significant reductions of fertility and/or fecundity when used with other dsRNAs. For instance, dsRNAs directed to AAEL001156, AAEL002084, AAEL006841, AAEL007544, AAEL011098, AAEL012096, or AAEL014408, when used in combination with other dsRNAs, resulted in a synergistic effect (Table 14).

Also provided herein is a modified insect, including, but not limited to, a modified insect produced by the methods disclosed herein. The insect may be a larva, a pupa, or an adult. In one embodiment, the modified insect is male. In one embodiment, a modified insect has the phenotype of decreased fecundity, decreased fertility, or the combination thereof, compared to a control. Optionally, the modified insect has no significant alteration in competitiveness compared to a control.

Also provided herein is a population of modified insects. The insects of the population may be a larva, a pupa, adult, or a combination thereof. The population has decreased fecundity, decreased fertility, or the combination thereof, compared to a control population. Optionally, the modified insect has no significant alteration in competitiveness compared to a control. In one embodiment, the population includes adults that are male biased. For instance, the population is, is at least, or is no greater than 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 81%, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% male. Further provided are methods for making a population of modified insects, including making a population that is male biased. In one embodiment, a population of modified insects may be produced by mass breeding in a containment facility. In one embodiment, a population of modified insects may be produced by exposing insects in an environment to one or more polynucleotides, such as a dsRNA. For instance, insects in a natural environment may be exposed to a dsRNA by adding dsRNA to baited food that is present in a natural environment. Insects, such as insects at the larval stage, ingest the baited food and the dsRNA. A composition that includes a food substance to act as a bait may also include an attractant, such as a pheromone, to attract insects. The size of a population of insects is not intended to be limiting, and may be, for instance, at least 100, at least 10,000, at least 100,000, or at least 1 million modified insects.

Also provided are methods of using the modified insects described herein, In one embodiment, a method is directed to biological control of an insect. Biological control refers to decreasing the population of a target insect in a defined area, and includes controlling reproduction in a population of the target insect. The area may be a laboratory setting, or a natural environment. The method includes releasing into an environment a population of modified insects. The method results in a reduction of the number of viable progeny of the insect in the environment, thereby causing a reduction in the numbers of the insect in the environment. The method may result in the elimination, suppression, containment, or prevention of a target insect in a defined area.

The environment may be any location where the target insect is present. The insects that are released may be in any developmental stage, e.g., larval, pupal, or adult, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, the released insects are adults. Methods for releasing insects into environments for use in biological control, such as sterile insect technique methods, may vary depending on the insect, and are known in the art and routine. Alternatively, baited food may be used in a natural environment.

In one embodiment, the insect (for instance, Aedes aegypti) is fed double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), and the ingested dsRNA induces gene-specific RNA interference (RNAi), reducing the expression of one or more targeted genes, rendering the males sterile. In addition, the insects may be simultaneously fed dsRNA that targets a female-specific gene, thereby inhibiting female development. As described in the Example, combinations of dsRNAs resulted in the production of male-only mosquitoes, and when tested in mating competitions with fertile males, the sterilized males were highly effective in reducing the population of mosquitoes. An extensive search for male-reproduction genes found that not all genes, when targeted by RNAi, would render the males sterile, and others failed to leave the males able to compete for female mates.

Also provided herein is the observation that feeding the insects dsRNA during their larval development can induce sterility in the adult. This result was unexpected and surprising; in many insects, gene silencing following ingestion of a dsRNA may be more pronounced in gut tissues, and silencing beyond the gut may be considerably reduced if non-existent. This result demonstrates that the RNAi phenotype can persist during the insect's development, and that the dsRNA can reach the gonad to induce the desired phenotype.

This method of producing sterile, male-only insects is an improvement over other existing methods where sex-sorting is challenging (such as when irradiating or treating with chemosterilants), and is an improvement over the use of genetically-modified insects, where the potential of spreading the transgene into non-target populations is a concern.

The present invention is illustrated by the following examples. It is to be understood that the particular examples, materials, amounts, and procedures are to be interpreted broadly in accordance with the scope and spirit of the invention as set forth herein.

EXAMPLE 1

To produce sterile insects without the use of radiation, non-specific chemosterilant compounds, or transgenic insects, a method of sterilizing insects using orally-administered double-stranded RNA (RNA) delivered to the larval stages of the insects was developed. In this invention, several genes are identified, that when targeted by RNAi, can sterilize male insects. Until this study, it was not clear whether ingested dsRNAs would be effective in silencing genes in all tissues beyond the gut, and in particular, the gonads of the insects. In addition to silencing genes associated with male (and female) fertility, it was also determined that the sex-ratio can be altered by feeding larvae with dsRNA targeting the female variant of the doublesex gene, which is involved in sex differentiation. Combining both testis-specific and female-specific dsx dsRNAs, it was possible to produce a population of mosquitoes that were almost entire male and either fully sterile or with severely reduced fecundity. It was also found that these dsRNAs could be expressed in bacteria, and that feeding the live or heat-killed bacteria to the mosquitoes had the same effect.

Results 1. Testis-Specific Genes are Identified in the Mosquito Aedes Aaegypti.

Using a suppressive subtractive hybridization technique (see Methods), 37 genes were identified that are predominantly or exclusively expressed in male Aedes aegypti testes (Table 3). Despite having been assigned accession numbers in VectorBase (available through the World Wide Web), the function and the tissue-specific expression of these genes had not previously been determined in the mosquito. RT-PCR continued that all 37 genes are expressed in testes in this species, with 15 genes showing no evidence of expression in larval stages, other adult male tissues, nor in female ovaries. Using bioinformatics searches, putative homologues for all but three of the 37 genes were found in the sequenced genomes of some other insects, including the model species Drosophila melanogaster (Table 3).

TABLE 3 Genes expressed predominantly or strictly in the testis of A. aegypti genes. Genes were identified in a SSH screen, selectively amplifying genes expressed in testes relative to the rest of the male's body. RT-PCR was used to assess whether the genes showed any expression in other male tissues, in late instar larvae, or in female ovaries. Genes are ordered in ascending gene accession numbers. Expressed Expressed Aedes aegypti D. melanogaster Testis- in in accession # homologue specificity larvae? ovary? AAEL001033 CG8208 No Yes Yes (MDB-like) AAEL001156 CG5280 Yes No No AAEL001684 CG4727 (bol) Yes No No AAEL002084 CG14220 Yes No Yes AAEL002275 CG3565 Yes No No AAEL003501 CG10252 Yes Yes No AAEL003757 CG4434 No Yes No AAEL004231 CG14271 (Gas8) Yes No No AAEL004471 CG4568 (fzo) Yes No No AAEL004696 CG5737 No Yes No AAEL004939 CG32396 (β-tub) Yes No No AAEL005010 CG14305 Yes No No AAEL005975 CG15259 (nht) Yes No No AAEL006726 CG6647 (zpg) Yes No Yes AAEL006841 — Yes No Yes AAEL006975 CG18369 (S-Lap5) Yes No No AAEL007144 CG12423 (klhl10) No No No AAEL007188 CG17083 Yes No No AAEL007434 — Yes No No AAEL007544 CG10895 (lok) Yes No Yes AAEL007684 CG4767 (tek) No Yes No AAEL008428 CG10841 No No No AAEL008678 CG18190 No Yes Yes AAEL009047 CG8819 (achi) No Yes Yes AAEL009321 — No Yes Yes AAEL009357 CG2146 No Yes Yes AAEL009553 CG12813 No Yes No AAEL010639 CG5458 Yes No No AAEL011098 CG8362 Yes No Yes AAEL011310 CG9313 Yes No No AAEL012096 CG18472 Yes No No AAEL012446 CG6303 No Yes Yes AAEL013621 CG17564 Yes Yes No AAEL013723 CG31000 (heph) Yes Yes Yes AAEL013737 CG6971 Yes No No AAEL014067 CG5048 Yes Yes No AAEL014408 CG4965 (twe) Yes No Yes

2. RNAi of the Testis-Specific Genes Rendered the Males Sterile or Poorly Fertile.

Using in vitro transcription, double-stranded RNAs were prepared for all 15 testis-specific genes and were injected into male pupae. QRT-PCR confirmed that RNAi was induced in the insects, with knockdown of transcripts ranging between 40 to 94% of control levels (controls were males injected with a non-mosquito-specific gus-dsRNA). Knockdown of all of the 15 targeted genes resulted in sterile or very weakly fertile males (Table 4). Not all dsRNAs, however, were equally effective; some induced high levels of RNAi and had greater impacts on male fertility, whereas other dsRNAs had weaker RNAi effects and lesser impacts on fertility or fecundity. In total, 12 dsRNAs induced sterility in greater than 50% of the treated males, lower (<50% of controls) fecundity of the males, or both high sterility frequencies and low fecundities.

TABLE 4 RNAi-mediated knockdown of some testis-specific genes resulted in increased sterility frequencies and reduced fecundities in male mosquitoes. The potential suitability of the genes to serve as RNAi targets for SIT was assessed by noting whether fecundity was reduced more than 50% (+), sterility was induced in more than 50% of the males (+), or both (++). A. aegypti Suitability as a accession # % RNAi¹ % sterility² % fecundity³ target Gus (negative 0 0 100 − control) AAEL001156  48 ± 14 18 ± 6 84 ± 8 AAEL001684 90 ± 5 71 ± 5  5 ± 3 ++ AAEL002275 75 ± 4 59 ± 9 26 ± 5 ++ AAEL004231 94 ± 5 72 ± 6  8 ± 6 ++ AAEL004471 84 ± 7 62 ± 4 11 ± 5 ++ AAEL004939 74 ± 8 48 ± 9 32 ± 9 + AAEL005010 77 ± 7 36 ± 8  43 ± 12 + AAEL005975 72 ± 3 49 ± 7  28 ± 10 + AAEL006975 91 ± 3 72 ± 8  8 ± 4 ++ AAEL007188 80 ± 5  57 ± 10 22 ± 4 ++ AAEL007434 48 ± 9 16 ± 5 54 ± 7 + AAEL010639  40 ± 11 38 ± 5  44 ± 13 + AAEL011310  52 ± 12 32 ± 9 44 ± 6 + AAEL012096  46 ± 11 18 ± 4 92 ± 7 AAEL013737 42 ± 4 10 ± 5 89 ± 8 ¹RNAi assessed using qRT-PCR from three samples of pooled RNA derived from groups of 5 insects. ²Percent sterility based on three trials of 10 insects, with each dsRNA-injected insect offered two virgin mates; individuals were considered sterile if no viable eggs were produced over a 1 week period. ³Percent fecundity of those individuals that produced viable eggs was calculated relative to three control matings between gus-dsRNA-injected individuals and virgin mates, which produced 43 ± 5 viable eggs/female by day 7, post-mating.

3. RNAi of Gonad-Specific Genes Rendered Both Males and Females Sterile or Poorly Fertile.

Using in vitro transcription techniques, dsRNAs were prepared for 6 genes that were identified as being expressed in both testes and ovaries, and following injection into pupae, both male and female insects were rendered sterile or with significantly reduced fecundity, relative to insects injected with dsRNA specific to the bacterial gus gene (Table 5).

TABLE 5 Impact of dsRNA injections into pupae on male or female fertility or fecundity. Values represent the means and standard errors of three replicate experiments. females males % % fecundity fecundity of fertile of fertile Gene % RNAi¹ % sterile² individuals³ % RNAi¹ % sterile² individuals³ AAEL002084 44 ± 7 23 ± 7 36 56 ± 9 28 ± 9 26 AAEL006726 85 ± 8 53 ± 9 15 75 ± 6  36 ± 12 19 AAEL006841 74 ± 6  43 ± 12 18 88 ± 6 47 ± 7 18 AAEL007544 42 ± 7 26 ± 3 32 37 ± 5 50 ± 3 26 AAEL011098 48 ± 6 36 ± 3 26 56 ± 4 56 ± 3 8 AAEL014408 91 ± 5 76 ± 3 12 87 ± 5 80 ± 1 32 ¹RNAi assessed using qRT-PCR from three samples of pooled RNA derived from groups of 5 insects. ²Percent sterility based on three trials of 10 insects, with each dsRNA-injected insect offered two virgin mates; individuals were considered sterile if no viable eggs were produced over a 1 week period. ³Percent fecundity of those individuals that produced viable eggs was calculated relative to three control matings between gus-dsRNA-injected individuals and virgin mates, which produced 43 ± 5 viable eggs/female by day 7, post-mating.

4. RNAI of Some Testis-Specific Genes Also Reduced Competitive Ability of the Males.

Of the 15 testis-specific dsRNAs tested in the mosquito Aedes aegypti, some negatively affected male mating behaviour, while others had minimal or no negative impact on male mating fitness. Of the 15 genes examined, 3 significantly reduced the males' mating competitiveness, 3 slightly reduced male mating competitiveness, while the other 10 dsRNAs produced high percentages of sterile males that could effectively compete for female mates and thus reduce the number of progeny produced in the next generation (Table 6). These 10 dsRNAs targeted genes that represent strong candidates for further screening to identify suitable RNAi targets to produce sterile males for SIT applications in this species.

TABLE 6 dsRNA-injected males are competitive with fertile males and can reduce the number of progeny in the next generation. Five dsRNA-treated males were mixed with 5 untreated males and 10 virgin females. One week later, eggs were collected and hatched to assess the next generation population size. The values represent the means and standard errors of three replicate experiments. Male pupae injected with gus-dsRNA served as the negative controls and the maximal population size expected. A strong negative impact on mating competitiveness was indicated if the population size was not reduced by more than 10% and a partial negative impact was indicated if the population was not reduced by more than 20%. RNAi-targeted % population Negative impact on gene Viable progeny reduction¹ competitiveness? Gus (control) 153.3 ± 5.7 — — AAEL001156  151.3 ± 14.7 1 (ns)   yes AAEL001684  90.7 ± 16.7 41 (P < 0.01) no AAEL002275  97.7 ± 5.2 36 (P < 0.01) no AAEL004231  85.3 ± 7.1 44 (P < 0.01) no AAEL004471  85.0 ± 13.5 44 (P < 0.01) no AAEL004939 100.0 ± 7.8 35 (P < 0.01) no AAEL005010  145.3 ± 11.0 5 (ns)   yes AAEL005975  98.0 ± 13.3 35 (P < 0.01) no AAEL006975  101.3 ± 11.8 34 (P < 0.01) no AAEL007188 106.0 ± 7.5 31 (P < 0.01) no AAEL007434 125.3 ± 6.6 19 (P < 0.01) partial AAEL010639 136.7 ± 2.7 11 (P < 0.05) partial AAEL011310  91.7 ± 8.0 41 (P < 0.01) no AAEL012096 144.0 ± 9.4 ns yes AAEL013723 127.0 ± 4.3 17 (P < 0.05) partial AAEL006726  101.2 + 12.1 34 (P < 0.01) no AAEL014408   146 + 11.8 ns yes ¹Population sizes were compared to the gus-dsRNA-treated controls, and values were compared using student t-tests.

5. RNAi of the Homologous Genes in D. Melanogaster Also Induced Sterility, and Some Had Limited or No Negative Effects on Male Mating Competitiveness.

D. melanogaster larvae were injected with dsRNAs corresponding to 9 of the previously identified 10 candidate mosquito genes (in section 4). RNAi was induced for all dsRNAs injected, and 6 of the 9 dsRNAs significantly reduced fecundity (by more than 30%) sterility, and 4 of the 6 still enabled the males to compete with fertile males for mates (population was reduced by >30% after one generation; Table 7). These findings suggest that several of the candidate genes could also serve as potential SIT targets in other insect species.

TABLE 7 RNAi of testes genes in D. melanogaster produce sterile males that are competing for mates. % re- Reduced duction D. % RNAi in fertility or of next Aedes aegypti melanogaster Drosophila fecun- gener- accession # homologue adults¹ dity?² ation³ AAEL001684 CG4727 (bol) 48 Yes 32 AAEL002275 CG3565 77 No 6 (ns) AAEL004231 CG14271 (Gas8) 49 Yes 38 AAEL004471 CG4568 (fzo) 58 Yes 30 AAEL004939 CG32396 (β-tub) 43 No 4 (ns) AAEL005975 CG15259 (nht) 86 Yes 38 AAEL006975 CG18369 72 No 2 (ns) (S-Lap5) AAEL007188 CG17083 66 Yes 6 (ns) AAEL011310 CG9313 58 Yes 22 ¹Values represent the reduction in targeted gene expression based on RNA derived from 10 pooled males. ²Ds-RNA-treated males were mated to two virgin females, and the number of progeny produced was compared to gus-dsRNA-treated males. A male's fertility/fecundity was assessed as being reduced if there were more than 30% fewer progeny than the controls (Chi square, P < 0.05). While the cut-off for a suitable reduction in fertility or fecundity was considered 30%, all these testes genes targeted in D. melanogaster resulted in a statistically significant reduction of fertility or fecundity. ³Five dsRNA-treated males were mixed with five untreated males and 5 females. A reduction in the production of viable adult progeny of greater than 30% was considered significant, relative to control mating with 10 fertile males (ANOVA, P < 0.05). While 30% was considered significant, most of these testes genes targeted in D. melanogaster resulted in a reduction offspring in the next generation, except those indicated by “ns”, denoting no significant difference from fecundity values relative to the negative controls. 6. Feeding Mosquito Larvae dsRNAs Can Render the Insects Sterile as Adults.

Mosquito larvae were treated with several formulations of ingestible dsRNAs targeting the testes genes. Daily 1 h exposures (for 5 days) of larvae to dsRNA dissolved in water induced partial sterility and reduced fecundity in males treated with seven of the top ten dsRNAs identified as having significant impacts on fertility (Table 8). E. coli bacteria expressing hairpin dsRNAs were fed continuously to larvae, either live or heat-killed. Using either live or dead bacteria, three of the dsRNAs were effective at inducing full sterility in many males, and significantly reduced fecundity in remaining males. No significant loss of potency of the RNAi effect was observed when the bacteria were heat-killed and mixed into mosquito feeding formulations. This demonstrates that is possible to mass-produce large quantities of the dsRNA using bacteria, and that the RNAi effect is sustained into adulthood. It also highlights the value of using bacteria to produce the dsRNA cheaply and in a form that is both attractive to the feeding larvae and effective in inducing RNAi.

TABLE 8 Feeding dsRNA to mosquito larvae can induce sterility and reduced fecundity in male mosquitoes. The values represent the means and standard errors of three replicates of 10 males mated to two females. Live E. coli Dead E. coli dsRNA in water expressing dsRNA expressing dsRNA % sterile¹ % fecund² % sterile % fecund % sterile % fecund AAEL001684 27 ± 5 32 ± 4 54 ± 8 12 ± 7 56 ± 8 18 ± 4 AAEL002275 14 ± 3 73 ± 8 16 ± 5 66 ± 9 24 ± 7 54 ± 6 AAEL004231 36 ± 5 33 ± 6 85 ± 5 12 ± 8 90 ± 4 10 ± 6 AAEL004471 24 ± 5  23 ± 10 77 ± 4 18 ± 4 83 ± 6 12 ± 4 AAEL004939 22 ± 7 76 ± 3 28 ± 5 77 ± 7 58 ± 6 66 ± 6 AAEL005975 46 ± 6 34 ± 3 86 ± 6  8 ± 6 77 ± 5 10 ± 5 AAEL006726 34 ± 6 53 ± 4 55 ± 6 26 ± 5 52 ± 4 27 ± 4 AAEL006975  8 ± 5 96 ± 3 14 ± 8 77 ± 8 20 ± 4 32 ± 5 AAEL007188  2 ± 2 101 ± 5   0 ± 0 98 ± 2  5 ± 2 AAEL011310 12 ± 4 86 ± 8 10 ± 4 95 ± 2 10 ± 5 ¹Percent sterility represents the percentage of males that were completely sterile (no viable progeny) following mating with two virgin females. ²Percent fecundity refers to the number of viable progeny of the remaining fertile males, relative to the number of progeny derived from control males (gus-dsRNA-injected), mated to two virgin females each. Increased concentrations of dsRNA enhanced the sterilization effect of dsRNAs (Table 9). RNAi is known to be dose dependent, and efficacy of RNAi can be enhanced by increasing the concentration of dsRNA in the water treatments.

TABLE 9 Higher sterilization rates can be achieved by increasing the concentrations of dsRNA within the water. Larvae were exposed to the dsRNAs each day for 1 h, and the males that developed were provided virgin females to test their fertility. % sterility using dsRNA in water dsRNA 0.02 mg/ml 0.2 mg/ml AAEL001684 (bol) 24 ± 5 86 ± 6 AAEL004231 (gas8) 35 ± 5 92 ± 5 AAEL004471 (fzo) 29 ± 5 82 ± 5 AAEL005975 (nht) 30 ± 6 84 ± 5 AAEL006726 (zpg) 20 ± 5 72 ± 5 Increased sterilization rates could also be achieved by combining two different dsRNAs, targeting different genes. This phenomenon was observed when mosquitoes were either exposed to dsRNA in the water or were fed E. coli expressing two different dsRNAs (Table 10). Comparing sterilization rates noted in Table 9 with values in Table 10, it is clear that sterilization can be enhanced, even using lower concentrations of dsRNA of each dsRNA (e.g. 0.01 mg/ml). Even dsRNAs that alone had not been particularly potent at inducing RNAi were much more effective when mixed with another dsRNA, indicating that combinations of dsRNA could be an effective way of improving sterilization efficiency.

TABLE 10 Combinations of dsRNAs enhance sterilization effect. Mosquito larvae were either soaked daily for 1 hr in two dsRNAs (each at 0.01 mg/ml, combined to yield 0.02 mg/ml) or were fed continuously on equal concentrations of two E. coli strains. % sterility Soaking in dsRNA E. coli feeding dsRNA(s) (0.02 mg/ml total) (dead bacteria) AAEL001684 + 46 ± 5 77 ± 6 AAEL002275 AAEL001684 + 79 ± 6 92 ± 6 AAEL004231 AAEL006726 + 72 ± 9 84 ± 7 AAEL004231 AAEL006975 + 44 ± 6  68 ± 10 AAEL006726 AAEL005975 + 88 ± 9 94 ± 5 AAEL004231 7. Feeding Mosquito Larvae dsx^(F)-dsRNA Inhibited Development of Female Mosquitoes.

Doublesex is a sex-differentiation gene that is differentially spliced in male and female insects. The female splice variant of dsx produces DSX^(F), which acts as a transcription factor that controls expression of many female-specific genes in insects. In contrast, DSX™, the protein derived from the male-specific splice variant, coordinates expression of male-specific genes. RNAi-mediated knockdown of dsx^(F) in mosquitoes was achieved by delivering two dsRNAs targeting the female-specific exons of dsx, either by soaking the insects in the two combined dsRNAs or by feeding equal concentrations of the two dsRNA-expressing E. coli strains, each targeting the two different dsx^(F) sequences. The dsx^(F) dsRNA inhibited development of adult females, and feeding dsx^(F) dsRNA resulted in a strongly male-biased population of insects (Table 11). Although some females still developed, their fertility was well below average; inspection of their spermatheca after being provided male mates for one week showed no evidence of sperm in most females, which indicates that they had not attempted to mate. Interestingly, when offered blood meals, only one of the dsx^(F)-dsRNA treated females attempted to blood feed. These results suggest that if mosquito larvae are fed dsx^(F)-dsRNA, the few females that develop from the cultures should not reduce the mating efficiency of sterilized males, and should not pose significant health risks.

TABLE 11 Treatment of mosquitoes with dsxF-dsRNA results in significantly reduced numbers of females and all females are sterile. # # females females that dsRNA # larvae # females that produced dsRNA delivery treated² developed bloodfed progeny³ gus Daily soakings 420 207 162 139 dsxF Daily soakings 440 6 0 0 gus Larval feeding¹ 445 238 194 172 dsxF Larval feeding¹ 460 7 1 0 ¹larvae were fed heat-killed E. coli continuously ²mixed sexes of larvae were treated ³females were provided 2 males for a period of one week, offered bloodmeals, and hatching of eggs monitored. 8. Feeding Mosquito Larvae a Mixture of E. coli That Expressed Both dsxF-dsRNA and a Testis-Specific-dsRNA Produced Mostly Male Mosquitoes, All of Which Were Either Sterile or Had Significantly Reduced Fertility.

Two E. coli strains were mixed, one expressing dsRNA targeting the female-specific dsxF transcript, the other expressing dsRNA targeting the AAEL004231 transcript. These were mixed with a feeding formulation (see Methods) to feed the mosquito larvae continuously. The adults that were produced were sexed and provided mates to assess their fertility (produced any offspring?) and fecundity (number of offspring). The insects fed on these E. coli developed almost entirely as males (96% males), indicating that the majority of females had failed to develop due to silencing of the dsxF transcripts (Table 12). The vast majority (96%) of the males were sterile, and of those males that were fertile, they produced less than 1% of the progeny produced by the control treatments, which were fed gus-dsRNA. Of the few females that were produced, their fecundity was reduced to 11% of the control females.

TABLE 12 Mosquito larvae fed on E. coli expressing dsRNA specific to dsxF and AAEL004231 developed into sterile male mosquitoes. Control larvae were raised on gus-dsRNA-expressing bacteria. The values represent the means and standard errors for four replicates of 50 larvae. % males % female dsRNA target % males¹ sterile² Progeny/male³ fertility⁴ Gus 52 ± 3  2 ± 1 62 ± 7  94 ± 2 (35 ± 4) dsxF + 96 ± 2 96 ± 3 0.42 ± 0.04 4 ± 1 (4 ± 2) AAEL004231 ¹The percentage of mosquitoes that developed into males after 8 days development ²The percentage of males that produced no progeny after being provided two virgin females for a period of 1 week. ³The average number of progeny produced in 1 week by the dsRNA-treated males after mating with two females. ⁴Percentage of females that was fertile after being fed the dsRNA as larvae. Numbers in parentheses indicate the number of progeny that each female produced over a one week period. 9. Mixing dsRNA-Fed Mosquitoes With Untreated Mosquitoes Results in Rapid Population Declines.

Mosquitoes derived from cultures fed on E. coli expressing the two dsRNAs targeting female development and male fertility were mixed with untreated mosquitoes in small population cages holding 50 untreated females, and varying proportions of dsRNA fed males and untreated males The mosquitoes collected from the dsRNA-fed cultures were not sex-sorted, which meant that a very small percentage of females were included in with the dsRNA-fed males. The impact on the size of the next generation was significant with even a seeding of the population of 25% dsRNA-fed insects, and the population was very strongly reduced when the proportion of sterile males exceeded 50%. (Table 13). This demonstrates that even without complete elimination of females from the dsRNA-fed insects, the sterile males are effective at competing with fertile males and reducing the mosquito population. The few non-sterile males, which have low fecundity, did not hinder the ability of the other males to reduce the population.

Mosquito larvae were also soaked in equimolar concentrations of the two dsRNAs (0.2 mg/ml), and the percent reduction on the population was equally if not slightly more effective than the bacterial feeding method (Table 14).

TABLE 13 Mixing dsRNA-fed (by E. coli feeding) mosquitoes into populations of mosquitoes reduces the effective size of the next generation. The values represent the means and standard errors for three replicate experiments. % dsRNA-fed Viable progeny of next % reduction from controls mosquitoes¹ generation² (no sterile males) 0 952 ± 38 0 25 849 ± 36 11 50 590 ± 41 38 75 371 ± 32 61 100 67 ± 8 93 ¹The dsRNA-treated mosquitoes typically consisted of 96% males, 4% females. ²The number of live larvae after 12 days post-mixing of the sterilized insects with the untreated insects.

TABLE 14 Male mosquito sterilization frequencies following treatment with one dsRNA (0.02 mg/ml) or simultaneously with two different dsRNAs, each at 0.01 mg/ml. The values in the table indicate the percentages of males sterilized with just the single dsRNA (along the diagonal) or with two different dsRNAs (values above the diagonal). Not all pairwise combinations have been tested, but it is evident that some most combinations provide higher sterility than single dsRNAs. Many pairwise combinations of dsRNAs appear synergistic (marked with an asterisk *), as they show greater than a 5% increase over a simple additive effect. Some of the dsRNAs used are those identified herein, including Table 2 (e.g., dsRNA 1684 below corresponds to dsRNA AAEL001684 in Table 2). dsRNA targets dsRNA 1156 1684 2084 2275 4231 4471 4939 5010 5975 6726 6841 6975 7544 10639 11098 11310 12096 14408 1156 22 57* 65* 67  53 40 55 42 1684 24  40  46  94*  85*  56*  63*  50* 90* 74* 2084 19  58* 2275 30  76* 63 50 56 45 62* 4231 34  80*  88*  89* 96* 68* 74* 82* 4471 27  78* 72* 4939 19 48 42 72* 5010 24  5975 29  80* 6726 18 44* 64* 56* 6841 25  6975 15  7544 28  10639 26  11098 22  11310 27  60* 12096 18  14408 22 

Methods:

RNA isolation: Testes and male accessory glands (MAGs) were dissected from 2-day old male Aedes aegypti mosquitoes and were stored in RNAlater (Ambion). Tissues stored in RNAlater were centrifuged at 14,000 g for 5 min at 4° C., the supernatant was removed, and tissues were washed with 0.5 ml of DEPC-treated water and pelleted once again to remove the liquid supernatant. Total RNA extraction was performed using an RNeasy Mini Kit (Qiagen) and mRNA was isolated using an Oligotex mRNA Mini Kit (Qiagen) according to manufacturer's specifications. The poly-A RNA (1 μg) was used in the construction of each subtracted library.

Subtractive library construction: Suppression subtractive hybridization (SSH; Diatchenko et al. 1996) was used to identify genes that were preferentially expressed in A. aegypti testes relative to other tissues within the male mosquito's body. The testis-specific subtracted library was built using a PCR-Select cDNA Subtraction kit (Clontech) according to manufacturer's recommendations, using testis eDNA as the TESTER source of cDNA, and cDNA derived from the rest of the body, minus the MAGs, serving as the DRIVER cDNA. The SSH-specific adapters were ligated to the TESTER cDNAs and the two pools of cDNA were hybridized for the forward subtracted library. Reverse subtracted libraries were built for subsequent differential screening, where the TESTER and DRIVER designations were inversed. Amplification of hybrids corresponding to common sequences was suppressed, yielding a library enriched for differentially expressed sequences within the testes. The forward-subtracted library was ligated into the pDrive plasmid vector (Qiagen), which was used to transform DH5α E. coli cells (Invitrogen). The resulting cDNA library was plated on LB agar supplemented with 100 μg/ml ampicillin, 80 μg/ml Xgal, 0.5 mM IPTG and incubated overnight at 37° C.

Differential screening: The efficiency of the subtraction of the testes library was estimated using qRT-PCR by comparing the abundance of a predicted non-differentially expressed gene, β-tubulin, using the primers tubF (5′ CGTCGTAGAACCGTACAAC, SEQ ID NO: 38) and tubR (5′ CAGGCAGGTGGTAATCC, SEQ ID NO: 39). The testis subtracted library was screened for differentially expressed ESTs following the manufacturer's instructions using the PCR-select cDNA subtraction screening kit (Clontech). Briefly, 120 E. coli clones were selected randomly and grown in 50 μl of LB-ampicilin (100 μg/ml) for 6 h at 37° C. with moderate shaking in 96-well plates. Two microliters of each bacterial culture were then spotted in duplicate on LB agar plates, and allowed to grow for 4 h at 37C, followed by bacterial colony lifts onto Hybond+ membranes (Amersham Biosciences) using standard techniques. Probes for the forward and reverse subtracted libraries were prepared by labeling 100 ng total cDNA from each library with ³²P-ATP by random priming, using the PCR-Select differential screening kit (Clontech) following manufacturer's instructions. Forward and reverse subtracted probes were hybridized to the DNA membrane at 65° C. for 2.5 h in a rotatory oven using Rapid-Hyb buffer (Amersham Biosciences). The membranes were washed with low stringency (2×SSC, 0.5% SDS; 3×, 20 min each) and high stringency (0.2×SSC, 0.5% SDS; 3×, 20 min each) buffers at 65° C. The radiolabelled DNA was detected using a PharosFX Molecular Imaging System (Bio-Rad).

Identification of testis genes: Selected colonies (strong signal with the forward and low signal with the reverse subtracted probe) were grown overnight in 2 ml of LB-ampicillin (100 μg/μl) and purified using the Qiagcn Miniprcp kit. Sequencing reactions were performed using Big Dye v3.1 chemistry. DNA sequences were compared to the A. aegypti genome within the VectorBase database and predicted Drosophila melanogaster homologues were identified using BLAST-X against the non-redundant database at NCBI with default parameters.

RT-PCR confirmation of testis expression: Tissue and sex-specific expression of the identified genes was confirmed and quantified using qRT-PCR, comparing expression of the genes' expression levels within testis, ovaries, and male bodies minus testis and MAGs. Reactions were performed in triplicate on a BioRad iQ5 Real-Time PCR Detection System using the primers listed in Table 15. S7 ribosomal protein (S7rp) gene expression was used as an internal reference to compare levels of RNAi. A single reference gene was deemed sufficient as the PCR efficiencies of the primer sets were calculated using the method of Pfaffl (2001), and were found to be essentially equivalent for all genes targeted by RNAi (β-tub, AeCS1, AeCS2, and hsp83) and for the S7rp reference gene, with values ranging between 95.2 and 98.1%. Melt curve analyses were also performed and confirmed that only a single product was amplified with each primer pair in every sample. Analysis of gene expression was performed using the 2^(−ΔΔC) _(T) method (Livak and Schmittgen 2001), comparing expression in specific dsRNA treated samples to gus-dsRNA treated samples.

TABLE 15 Primers used to amplify gene fragments for dsRNA synthesis or for qRT-PCR analysis. SEQ ID NOs: are shown in parentheses. Gene dsRNA primers qRT-PCR primers AAEL001033 F TTTCAAGCAACCGGTGACAG (48) ACACTTCGCTCATTCCAC (120) R TTGAGGGACGTTTTGGAAGC (49) ACCTTGCTGTCTCCATCC (121) AAEL001156 F GCAAAACTGACCATCCTGCA (50) CGATGTGGACTATACGGAAAC (122) R CCGTTCTTGCAGTTTCAGCT (51) GGATTACTTGACGGTGCTTC (123) AAEL001684 F CTGTGCCGGTTATTCAGCTC (52) GGTATTCGTCGGTGGTATCAG (124) R GGGATGTTGTTGATCGTCGG (53) GCCTCGTGTTCGGTTTCG (125) AAEL002084 F TTGCTGGACGAGAAGGAAGT (54) AAGGAGTACGAAGAGAAGAAG (126) R ACTGAGCTGGTTGGTGAAGA (55) CGGAAGCGGTTCATTAGG (127) AAEL002275 F AGATCGAGCACTGTTTCCGA (56) GTCGTTTGGTGCGGCGTTTG (128) R CGTATACATGGGCCCGATCT (57) CCTTGTTGTCCTCCTCATCCTTGG (129) AAEL003501 F CGCAAGGATCGGAAACCAAT (58) CAGCAGGATACGGTCTTC (130) R CATGCTGTAGATCGGGTTGC (59) GAATAGGTCGGATTGTTGG (131) AAEL003757 F AAAGGAGCGAAGGAGACCAA (60) GCGGCGGATGCGATTCTC (132) R AGGTAGTGTTTCAGGGCCTC (61) GACTCTTGGCGGAACGATAGC (133) AAEL004231 F AGCCAAAGGAAGTACGGTCA (62) GAGCATCAGTCGCACATC (134) R CTTTCAGCTCTCCGATGTGCV TCCTTCTCTCGCAGTAACC (135) AAEL004471 F CGCGCCAAGAAGAAGATCAA (63) AAGCACAACACCAGGAAC (136) R ATTTTGTCCCGCAGCATAGC (64) GAAACCATCAGCCAAAGC (137) AAEL004696 F GATACCGAAATGTGCACGCT (65) CCGTGCTTGAGTTGATAC (138) R CCGGTTCTTTGTCACTGCAA (66) ATTGGAATCTGATGGTGAG (139) AAEL004939 F TATCCTGGGCAGCTGAACTCV GAACACCACCGCCATCAC (140) R CAATGCGAGAAGGTACCGTG (67) CCTGCTTCTTCTTGACTTTCG (141) AAEL005010 F GTTTTCGTCGGTCCGGTTAG (68) CGGTGGAAGTGGATTGTC (142) R TrGGCTTGGGTCTCCTTGAT (69) CGTTCTGATTCTTGCTGATG (143) AAEL005975 F TGGACAAGGCGGAACAAAAG (70) GAGCAGAGATGGAGGAAC (144) R CTTGATTCGAGGCCTCAACG (71) CAGGCGTAACAGTCGTAG (145) AAEL006726 F GCATTCCTGTTCTCGTTCCC (72) TGGCTTTGGTTCATTErG (146) R TGAAGTCACATTTGGCCAGC (73) TATCCGATGTTGGCTTCC (147) AAEL006841 F CATCGGGTGTTGCTTCTACG (74) ACGGTGCCTATCTGAGAAG (148) R TCAAAGTACACGTGCTGCAG (75) GGATGCTGATGAACGCTAC (149) AAEL006975 F GCCATTTCGATGCCAAAACG (76) CGTCTGGTGTAGGTGCTAAGTG (150) R TCGACTGAAATCCGGGAACA (77) TGCTTGTTCTGCCGCTTGC (151) AAEL007144 F AACACTTCAACACGTGTCGG (78) TTCGCATACGGAGTGTTAC (152) R TCGTACACTTCAGCGGAGTT (79) CCTTGTGGATGTAGTCTCG (153) AAEL007188 F GCAGCGCCAATATCTGAACA (80) TTCGCAGTCGGATTACTTCTTC (154) R TTCCCGCTTCTTCAGGTGAT (81) TGGTTCTTGGTGATATTCGTAGC (155) AAEL007434 F CTGTCCTCGCCCAATGAATG (82) TGCGTTCTGTTCATAATGGTTAC (156) R CTGCAGTAAATCTCCGCACC (83) GTCGGGTTTGGTTTCACTCC (157) AAEL007544 F ATCGTCTATGGCCGGCTTTA (84) AGTTCTCCTTCCGACATC (158) R TAGCGCTATGATGTCGTCGT (85) GTAAGCCGCACATTCATC (159) AAEL007684 F AGCGATGCAGGACGAGATTA (86) CGCCACCAGATGTCCTAATG (160) R CGTGGGCCAGTTTCTTATCG (87) CAGTTGTTCCGATTGCTTCC (161) AAEL008428 F TTGGGCATGCTTCACTGATG (88) TGTTGGATGATGTTGTGAGATGTG (162) R ATCGTCGGAGTATCGCTGTT (89) ATCGTCGGAGTATCGCTGTTC (163) AAEL008678 F GCCGTTTCCAGGACAACTTT (90) CCAGTCAGAGGGCGAATG (164) R GTAGTAATCCCGCTCTGCCT (91) CTTCTCCGTCAGGTCATCC (165) AAEL009047 F GGAACGGTGAAATCGATGGG (92) CACAGAGGAGGAAGTAATTG (166) R TTCACTGCTGTCETTGTGTG (93) CACTATTGGACTGCTAACG (167) AAEL009321 F CAGCGACGAACCACAATGTA (94) GTATATGTCGCCTCGGTTC (168) R GCTTATCGCCGATGGTTACC (95) GGGTTGTATCGGTGTTCC (169) AAEL009357 F TCAAGCAAGTGCTGGACAAC (96) R TGCCTTCAGGTCGTTCTCTT (97) AAEL009553 F CAGTAGCTTTCCGTCCATGC (98) GTTGCTCTTCGTCATTATTCC (170) R GACCAGCGGATAAATCGCAG (99) AAATCCATTGCCATCTTTGC (171) AAEL010639 F GCGCACGTTATGATGGGAAT (100) GCGGAGATGTTACCTTGAAG (172) R TTCCCTTGCATCACATCCCT (101) GAAACTACCTGGACCTCTGG (173) AAEL011098 F TTGGCGAAATTCTGCAAGCT (102) ACTCATACACTCGTTTCAAG (174) R AGCCGAAACGTTTGCTTCAT (103) TCCATATCCGAAGCACTC (175) AAEL011310 F GGATATGAGACCCGAACCGT (104) GAAGATGCCGAGCGAGAG (176) R GTTTTTCTTCGGTGCCTTCGT (105) GACCGACCTGGATGGATTC (177) AAEL012096 F AATACCAGCACGCTCTCTCA (106) R ATTGCATCGGTGGCAAGTTT (107) AAEL012446 F GCTACTTGGATTTGGGCGAC (108) CGGAGCCAAGGAGGTCATC (178) R ATCGCTTCGGACAGGATGAT (109) ACAGCAGCAGAAGCAGAGG (179) AAEL013621 F TTTGAACCCGGAAAAGGCAG (110) CCAGAGCAACCGAGAGTATG (180) R TTCGACGAAATCCTCCCACA (111) CGACGAAATCCTCCCACAG (181) AAEL013723 F GATGAAACTGCCGCCACTAG (112) TTAAGATTGTCACCTTCACC (182) R TTGCCGAACCGTTGGAAAAT (113) CGTTGTAGATGTTCTGTCC (183) AAEL013737 F AAGACTTGGGAAGAGGACGG (114) TGTAGTTCGGTATCGTTCGG(184) R TTCTCTAGCAGCTGGATCCG (115) TCGGCATTCCTTCGTTCG (185) AAEL014067 F TTGCTCATACGCTCCATTGC (116) ACAACAGAGCCTAAGACTATC (186) R TTGCTCCTGAACGGTGAGAT (117) CGACAATCATATTCTCACAGC (187) AAEL014408 F GACCGATCCTGCAAAAGTCC (118) TGGACGATAATGCTCAAC (188) R TTTGCTCCTGGGTGTAGAGG (119) GAGGCGAATGGAGTTATG (189)

Isolation of the dsxF gene fragment in A. aegypti: The two primers pairs, dsxf1-for (GGTCAAGCCGTGGTCAATGAAT; SEQ ID NO:40) and dsxf1-rev (CAACATTCTCCGCGCACAGG; SEQ ID NO:41) and dsxf2-for (GCAAATGCTGTTTAACGATAATAG; SEQ ID NO:42) and dsxf2-rev (CGGAGCCGTTTGGCAACGG; SEQ ID NO:43) were used to amplify portions of the two female-specific exons of the dsxF transcript (Genbank accession numbers: DQ440532 and DQ440533). These two PCR products were subsequently used as templates to prepare dsRNAs by in vitro transcription, and were used in equimolar concentrations for dsRNA soaking or were cloned into pL4440 plasmids, to be used to transform E. coli, for bacterial feeding, as described below.

Injecting dsRNA into mosquito pupae: Total RNA was extracted from late pupae and early adult male A. aegypti, using QIAshredders (Qiagen) to homogenize tissues and an RNeasy RNA extraction kit (Qiagen). RNA was treated with amplification grade DNase I (Invitrogen) and 1 μg was used to synthesize cDNA using a First Strand cDNA Synthesis kit (Invitrogen). The cDNA served as template DNA for PCR amplification of gene fragments ranging in size from 260 to 380 bp in length, using the primers listed in Table 15. The gene fragments were subcloned into the cloning vector pDrive (Qiagen), and later excised from pDrive using either ApaI and PstI or MluI and NotI restriction enzymes, then ligated into a similarly-digested plasmid pL4440, a vector possessing convergent T7 promoters (kindly provided by Andrew Fire, Stanford University). A 401 bp fragment of the β-glucuronidase (gus) gene, a bacterial gene specific to Escherichia coli, was amplified by PCR from the pBacPAK8-GUS plasmid (Clontech) using the following primers: GusF 5′ CCCTTACGCTGAAGAGATGC (SEQ ID NO:44) and GusR 5′ GGCACAGCACATCAAAGAGA (SEQ ID NO:45)). The 401 bp PCR product was cloned into the dsRNA transcription plasmid pL4440, as described above, to be used as a negative control. DNA templates for in vitro transcription of each of the gene fragments in pL4440 were PCR-amplified using the following pL4440-specific primers: pL4440F 5′ ACCTGGCTTATCGAA (SEQ ID NO:46) and pL4440R 5′ TAAAACGACGGCCAGT(SEQ ID NO:47). PCR products were then purified using a QIAquick PCR purification kit (Qiagen). The MEGAscript RNAi kit (Ambion) was then used for in vitro transcription and purification of dsRNAs. DsRNAs were diluted to 0.1 mg/ml in 20 mM phosphate, pH 7, and each pupae was injected with 50 nl. To assess for RNAi, insects were allowed to develop until 3-days post-eclosion and RNA was extracted as described above.

Feeding dsRNA to mosquito larvae: Mosquito larvae were soaked in two concentrations of in vitro-transcribed dsRNA (0.02 and 0.2 mg/ml dsRNA) in dechlorinated tap water for 1 h each day, and then returned to their feeding trays. To feed larvae bacteria, the pL4440 plasmids containing the mosquito genes were used to transform HT115(DE3) E. coli cells and dsRNA production was induced by growing the liquid cultures of Luria Broth supplemented with 50 μl/ml ampicillin and 0.4 mM IPTG. Once the cultures had reached an OD of 0.7-0.8, the cells were pelleted by centrifugation and mixed with 1% LB-agar containing ampicillin and IPTG and 1 g of finely ground Purina Rabbit Chow, cooled to 42° C. to ensure the bacteria were not heat killed. The agar bacteria mixture was plated to a thickness of 5 mm, cooled, and then cubed into 5 mm cubes, to be fed to mosquito larvae. To feed heat-killed bacteria in the same mixture, following pelleting, the bacteria were exposed to 70° C. for 1 h, and then mixed with the agar-rabbit chow mixture and plated and cubed. Agar cubes were stored at 4° C. until needed. Mosquito larvae were raised in densities of 0.5 larva/ml water (groups of 10 larvae in 20 ml) and provided single cubes of bacteria-containing agar on a daily basis. As pupae developed, they were transferred to individual vials to await eclosion and sex-sorting.

Mosquito fertility assays: Individual 3-day old dsRNA-treated mosquitoes were provided virgin mates in 25 ml plastic vials for 2 days. Mosquitoes were provided 10% sucrose ad libitum, and to assess fertility and fecundity, females were provided blood meals (derived from rats) 2 days post-mating, and eggs were collected on moistened paper towels placed within the vials for a week to 10 days post-blood meal. Eggs were incubated at 25° C. for 4 days, and then immersed in water to assess hatch rates and calculate fecundity. If no eggs were produced, or all eggs failed to hatch, the dsRNA-treated insect was considered sterile. For small population mating competitions involving only 20 mosquitoes, 500 ml glass jars with screen-covered lids were used, while mating competitions using 100 mosquitoes were conducted in larger (45×45×45 cm) screened cages.

RNAi in Drosophila: Fragments of D. melanogaster genes were PCR-amplified using the primers listed in Table 16. DsRNAs were prepared as described above, and were injected (20 μl of 0.1 mg/ml) into wandering phase late instar larvae. Two days after adult eclosion, insects were collected and RNA was extracted to assess the extent of RNAi.

To test for impacts of the dsRNA on fertility, dsRNA-treated males were mated to two virgin females, and the number of progeny produced was compared to gus-dsRNA-treated males. A male's fertility/fecundity was considered to be reduced if there were more than 30% fewer progeny than the controls (Chi square, P<0.05). The dsRNA-treated males' ability to compete with fertile males for mates was assessed by mixing five dsRNA-treated males were mixed with five untreated males and 5 females. A reduction in the production of viable adult progeny of greater than 30% was considered significant, relative to control mating with 10 fertile males (ANOVA, P<0.05).

TABLE 16 Primers used to amplify gene fragments from D. melanogaster and primers used for qRT-PCR analysis of RNAi. SEQ ID NOs: are shown in parentheses. Gene (Aedes accession no. and FlyBase accession no.) dsRNA primers qRT-PCR primers AAEL001684 F GCGGATGGTGAATGCGTGGT (190) TACGGCACACTAATACCCAATC (208) CG4727 (bol) R TGGGGATTGTGGATGCGACTG (191) TGCTCTTTACCGTGCCATAG (209) AAEL002275 F CTGGAGAATGCCCGCTTCAACTAC (192) CGCATTCTCGGTCTACGATAAA (210) CG3565 R GGTGAAAAGCCGCACAAAGGAC (193) CTTCATCCTCGCTCTCAAAGAA (211) AAEL004231 F GCCTCAAGACGCGCAACACT (194) GAGGCGATGACCCAACTAAA (212) CG14271 (Gas8) R GTTGCCCACCCGTTCATCCA (195) TCTCGCTCATCTCCATTCTTTC (213) AAEL004471 F CGCGGTGTCAGCGTTAAAAA (196) GTCCTTCAATGTCTCTCCATACC (214) CG4568 (fzo) R CTGGCCTATTTGTGCTGGGA (197) CAATCCAGGCCGTAGATTAGTT (215) AAEL004939 F GCTTGACCTCTCTAATAATGG (198) TCCGGCTTGACCTCTCTAATA (216) CG32396 (β-tub) R GAAAATTCCAGCAGCGGTC (199) CGACGGAATGGTCACATAGTr (217) AAEL005975 F TGCGAGCATCGAACAAGCTA (200) CAAGAATGGCTCCTGGATTCT (218) CG15259 (nht) R ATCGGAGCACCGGTCAATTT (201) TCGTCGTTGTGCAGATGATAG (219) AAEL006975 F GCAACAAGCGCAAGCAGGAT (202) CCTGACTGGAGATCGTTTATGG (220) CG18369 (S-Lap5) R CAGAGCGGCAGTACGGCCGT (203) GCTGATGTCGAAGGTGAGATT (221) AAEL007188 F TCGGTGAATCGCCTGTTTGA (204) AAGTTTCAGCAGCAGGAGAG (222) CG17083 R AAACACTAGCCGTCAGCTCC (205) ACAGGCGATTCACCGAATTAT (223) CG9313 F GCCCACAACATGTCCGTCTA (206) ATATGCGTCCAGATCCGCTG (224) R AAGGCGAGCTTCTCGTTGAA (207) GTCGAAAACGTGGACCTTGC (225)

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The complete disclosure of all patents, patent applications, and publications, and electronically available material (including, for instance, nucleotide sequence submissions in, e.g., GenBank and RefSeq, and amino acid sequence submissions in, e.g., SwissProt, PIR, PRF, PDB, and translations from annotated coding regions in GenBank and RefSeq) cited herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety. Supplementary materials referenced in publications (such as supplementary tables, supplementary figures, supplementary materials and methods, and/or supplementary experimental data) are likewise incorporated by reference in their entirety. In the event that any inconsistency exists between the disclosure of the present application and the disclosure(s) of any document incorporated herein by reference, the disclosure of the present application shall govern. The foregoing detailed description and examples have been given for clarity of understanding only. No unnecessary limitations are to be understood therefrom. The invention is not limited to the exact details shown and described, for variations obvious to one skilled in the art will be included within the invention defined by the claims.

Unless otherwise indicated, all numbers expressing quantities of components, molecular weights, and so forth used in the specification and claims are to be understood as being modified in all instances by the term “about.” Accordingly, unless otherwise indicated to the contrary, the numerical parameters set forth in the specification and claims are approximations that may vary depending upon the desired properties sought to be obtained by the present invention. At the very least, and not as an attempt to limit the doctrine of equivalents to the scope of the claims, each numerical parameter should at least be construed in light of the number of reported significant digits and by applying ordinary rounding techniques.

Notwithstanding that the numerical ranges and parameters setting forth the broad scope of the invention are approximations, the numerical values set forth in the specific examples are reported as precisely as possible. All numerical values, however, inherently contain a range necessarily resulting from the standard deviation found in their respective testing measurements.

All headings are for the convenience of the reader and should not be used to limit the meaning of the text that follows the heading, unless so specified. 

1. A modified insect comprising decreased expression of a testis-specific coding region compared to a control insect, wherein the modified insect is male, and wherein the modified insect comprises, when compared to the control insect, reduced fertility, reduced fecundity, or a combination thereof.
 2. (canceled)
 3. The modified insect of claim 1 wherein the modified insect is a member of the family Culicidae, the family Tephritidae, the family Tortricidae, the Order Diptera, or the Order Lepidoptera. 4-8. (canceled)
 9. The modified insect of claim 1 wherein the insect is a mosquito.
 10. (canceled)
 11. The modified insect of claim 9 wherein the mosquito is Aedes aegypti.
 12. The modified insect of claim 3 wherein the testis-specific coding region is selected from Table 2 or a homologue of a coding region of Table
 2. 13. The modified insect of claim 1 wherein the expression of more than one testis-specific coding region is decreased.
 14. The modified insect of claim 1 wherein the modified insect further comprises decreased expression of a coding region encoding a sex differentiation polypeptide compared to a control insect.
 15. The modified insect of claim 14 wherein the sex differentiation polypeptide is a doublesex female splice variant.
 16. A method for producing an insect comprising: administering to a juvenile insect a composition comprising a double stranded RNA (dsRNA) that inhibits expression of a testis-specific coding region; and allowing the juvenile insect to mature into an adult, wherein the adult insect has reduced fertility, reduced fecundity, or a combination thereof, compared to a control insect.
 17. The method of claim 16 wherein the insect is a member of the family Culicidae, the family Tephritidae, the family Tortricidae, the Order Diptera, or the Order Lepidoptera 18-21. (canceled)
 22. The method of claim 16 wherein the administering comprises feeding the composition to the insect.
 23. The method of claim 22 wherein the dsRNA is present in bacteria that are fed to the insect.
 24. The method of claim 23 wherein the bacteria are inactivated.
 25. The method of claim 16 wherein the insect is a larva or a pupa.
 26. (canceled)
 27. The method of claim 16 wherein the testis-specific coding region is selected from Table 2 or a homologue of a coding region of Table
 2. 28. (canceled)
 29. The method of claim 16 wherein the dsRNA is a first dsRNA, further comprising administering to the insect a second dsRNA that inhibits expression of a coding region encoding a doublesex female splice variant.
 30. An insect produced by the method of claim
 16. 31. A population of an insect produced by the method of claim
 16. 32. A method of biological control comprising releasing into an environment a population of an insect of claim
 1. 33. A method for producing a population of an insect that is male-biased comprising administering to a population of an insect at a juvenile stage a composition comprising a double stranded RNA (dsRNA) that inhibits expression of a coding region encoding a doublesex female splice variant. 